Wayne County, NEw YORK.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF JOHN CRAIG.

PART II — GEOLOGY,

BY G. F. WARREN, BY W. E. McCOURT, © Fellow in Agriculture. Fellow in Geology.

i MEX OIEY BULEETIN 226: CORNEEL UNIVERSITY. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF \ HE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE.

Department of Horticulture (Extension Work).

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY

WAYNE County, NEw YORK.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

JOHN CRAIG.

PART I— THE APPLE INDUSTRY, PART Il — GEOLOGY, BY G. F. WARREN, BY W..E. McGOUier; Fellow in Agriculture. Fellow in Geology. >»

q ‘\

ITHACA, N. Y. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

ORGANIZATION

OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.

TEE TRUSTEES (OP EE UW NPVERSLT ¥.

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL.

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture

THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOIN L. STONE, Agronomy.

JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy.

JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.

JOHN M. TRUEMAN, Animal Husbandry and Dairy Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture.

Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them.

XS on ie ~ + oa & COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, frm Aca, N.Y. SS

4. Hon. CHarLes A. WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture:

Y

question was a subject of lively debate:

Sir.—At the first annual meeting of the Fruit Growers’ Society of Western New York, held at Rochester in January, 1856, the following “ Can the cultivation of fruits for market on an extensive scale be recommended to the farmers of Western New York?”

One of the most emphatic parts of the discussion was that contributed by Patrick Barry, who explained the westward trend of wheat-growing and called attention to the natural advantages offered by Western New York for commercial fruit-growing. He opened his discussion as follows: “JT would answer without the slightest hesitation—yes. The circum- stances in which Western New York is placed to-day are quite different from those of a few years ago. The Great West has been opened up by railroads, and the farmers of Illinois, Wisconsin, and the Western States can send forward their wheat and other grain crops to the seaboard with rapidity and at cheap rates. This has created a vast competition for our farmers. |

“ Here our farming lands are worth from $50 to $100 per acre, while they are worn and need manure. In the West the richest and finest soils under the sun can be bought for $4 or $5 per acre, ready for the plow. The weevil, too, of late vears has made sad work with the wheat crops; and is it not high time that the farmer should make some inquiry con- cerning other objects of culture to which he may appropriate his lands and invest his skill and capital to greater advantage ?

“It seems to me it 1s, and I think this society should come forward and suggest a more extensive culture of fruits.”

Mr. Barry’s opinions were challenged; but time has seen the fulfilment of them. It is now our privilege, after the lapse of about fifty vears, to begin a survey to determine what the status of this great fruit industry has come to be.

The work herein described was performed in the season of 1903; and this Bulletin comprises a part of the annual report of that year.

L. H. BaIey, Director.

"YAO MIN UAIISI A, 40f Id4j-o] ddd Umpyyg poops UE? —AOAIdSILNOWs]

PREFACE,

At the summer meeting of the New York State Fruit-Growers’ Asso- ciation held at Olcott Beach in 1902, the writer made the suggestion that a careful survey of the principal orcharding regions of the State should form a definite part of the function of the society. The sug- gestion met with the approval of the executive, but could not be carried out for lack of men and funds. While the project, of necessity, lay dormant with the society, its importance was immediately realized by former Director Roberts of the Cornell Experiment Station, who, the following year, gave the necessary authorization and provided the funds from Experiment Station resources to make a beginning, and the work was started in June, 1903.

Purposes of an orchard survey—The purposes of such a survey are manifold :

1. To correlate geologic and soil characters with orchard conditions.

2. To compare successes and failures, and ascertain underlying causes.

3. To investigate methods of orchard management and determine the influence of each.

4. Finally, and in short, to collect and tabulate such a mass of data upon practical apple-growing, as will place many moot questions beyond the range of peradventure and furnish indisputable evidence for the assistance of those who are horticultural leaders and teachers.

The benefits of feeding, of tillage, of pruning, of spraying are admitted by many; but, as a matter of fact, the knowledge 1s made use of by comparatively few. We hear much of the occasional progressive and successful orchardist with his twenty-five to fifty acre well-cared- for orchard, but we do not hear of scores of apple-growers maintain- ing from five to ten acres, who are not convinced at heart that spraying pays, that the tree needs feeding for the apples it bears, or that there is anything in pruning aside from lopping off a limb at a convenient place when it interferes with a wagon, or another limb. Such masses of facts as may be collected by examining the soil and condition of

232 BULLETIN 226.

erowth of the trees in hundreds of orchards, and the uncompromising conclusions which the results of tabulations furnish, are needed to

.

convince those persons who are unmoved by * comfortable theorizing.” Such facts are furnished in abundance in the following pages. They corroborate the best teachings of Cornell and other experiment sta- tions during the past ten years, and should furnish a great incentive toward the wiser management of our apple orchards in this great apple-growing State.

How the survey was conducted—The work was placed in the immedi- ate charge of Mr. G. F. Warren, who, equipped with an experiment station credential (which he was never called upon to use), a soil auger, note-book and camera, all mounted on a bicycle, made a beginning at Walworth, in Wayne county, in June, 1903.

Scope of the survey.—At first we planned to examine every orchard in the county. This we found to be impracticable after a month had been spent in the single township of Walworth. Ir. Warren spent three months in the county, and, after examining every orchard in Walworth township, investigated nearly all above five acres in extent in the town- ships adjoining on the north and the south. This carved off a character- istic strip of country from the west end and furnished a mass of data, from one carefully examined section, with which to compare other data collected in a less concentrated manner.

The work was started at Walworth, for here it was that orcharding received its greatest impetus in the county. Sixty years ago there were large numbers of small seedling orchards scattered about, bearing good, bad and indifferent fruit with practically no care. Such were the conditions when T. G. Yeomans moved to \Wayne county and became interested in fruit-growing. He soon started a nursery and for nearly half a century the firm of T. G. Yeomans & Sons grew apple-trees and urged the planting of apple-trees upon their neighbors. The senior member of the firm set the example himself by planting more than one hundred and twenty-five acres of apples. Baldwin, Greening, King, Spy, Spitzenburg and Roxbury Russet were, and are to-day, leading varieties in Wayne and the Lake Ontario counties. Mr. Yeomans believed in tillage and practiced it.

Acknowledgment.—To Mr. L. T. Yeomans and E. L. Yeomans, of Walworth, where the work began, we are much indebted for friendly

counsel and helpful suggestions; to the fruit-growers of the county

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 233

we offer our thanks for the manner in which they met the * Experi- “ment Station Agents” and freely placed at their disposal the results of such observations and experience as their years in orcharding had brought them. It is hoped that this pamphlet will in some measure return such favors as we gratefully acknowledge on behalf of the field workers. JOHN Cralic.

PART I.

THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF WAYNE COUNTY, NEW YORK.

G. F. WARREN.

CONTENTS.

PAGE. NGO GION ccc Ae Oe. othekcaasaaets.qeeu leeks eee coe ieee. 241-247

Se CUC vy orie tare alee aod gel aynain Siege Seonb te 4 ace bce cok ake geme ee Qe an Be 241 iierdesrceet of accitaeyOf the féports. . <2. .c iv avtaes otek aseocrs ceases s 24 Method Grrinakine COMmputatONS....<c.+104 thc. sc abcenuccberslevedieds wae. 245 Pyromer in Orleans Count iasc0, cyeah 6 oeag sense ncn Peas nas eS elaus Be tek < gx BAO renichal Ouservations ON. tie WOrk: 2.0 64... 1d peu w dss cogs Slaes wchawoes one 240

CHAPTER I. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE APPLE .INDUSTRY............... 00 0c cece ee ee eeees 249-259

UME eMVGducton Per Capita . caves oi. OSia ties came aves sauces secu es o BAD Maonitude of the apple crop. i... sn. cece ks hla

bo Ur o)

Production Of evaporated apples: .....dcsskecs00seaveae bagavewsase ven ees Malne\of orchard prodticts of the various States....... 025.0... 0000ee50504 ESD OULSuOl sap PLES, LO 5L=MOO4,, ss he acim stele ctsnste gly er fran av Steesa, saneve are Bsa ober ces

bo

bo wm OV on Ut Woes

to

uted devoted tO apples in Wayne county si oc. oc ce oe. conte nae oe we eae eens 250 Mevelonment of the commercial orchard: 022.7... d.s060. aeesee te saan deni. 257

CEU PBR Tl,

SICTIae A GH eerie terri. (NK eel os Bovina agatha ng ater ee ese DOLRLT2 Wereare or tilled aid! untilled orchards... . icc. bo6s cae ab eases eaane 2OL Yields of tilled and untilled orchards. ..........00ccccceceeeceuceeeeeeees ID Yeyei all every 9 py: Iki eae cater pg ere ae re 204 Results of treatment not immediately apparent................0+..++2++++ 267 Vie thine como tam Cll cme ae hlcat sate arenes an qe anders slela Gives sce sale Stare ne tases + = «200 Meine dsmoie SOcmtneatmnentnest.c he cinco c 4 .c.2 seg a2 ace ws ejcue'e Slehocs tea) auakenare a2 ar 2OO)

CHAPTER III.

FERTILIZATION B77, TaeIpil ZS SMELLS Cee te aie terial creas icleiedes ain theta eae aramicmaNrwa vacate Bale (278 BMemiilazcatt OMentld: VCC er Fst d-.c Bias aces tiaains 246% saga ond oases aa sok nemo s 274 NGG eSSIiVarOnMm TCE 1ZcitiOlcsngse + s..g 6m Samra eases eas helene Sear Scie aetocoearae ee et Relative amounts of plant-food removed by the apple crop and by the

NUE ULEN UMN) [eeemetane sagen te aus caareat vatuerei rae taste eSiely Sous Glereee Gs wa Fu fusiclisote teva oae AL Mantinershippedei nO CitleSe 440. «sercessr ase cate. ¢velires coeseh eee ene 270 Niamunre sectired by feeding cattle, 22... Saaeecae cc le Pete ea eee dasatenen-- 0s 276 Method of applying manure............... eee ee eee Oy, Come te ClO) Smee eee Meine So Cie Oerua he ARE oe Haass Lae dean. A aed sa -27

237

238 . BULLETIN 226,

CHAP IR UVe ;

PAGE.

PRUNING 5.2) 132-654 Ses5e oh Bch bg Sader ck fd pete e Sree = ae eee Former methods of praningii..\ icaced criau bem obsaste ss 0 eee eee How «wounds: Weal ogi ia fects «cain sept (ds ies See ore Vaasa artis Leng epee Removal of large lmibe:i. 2.2224... )s cs sad8 es bene phew as peu 279 BStth” praiiGe ees vues newladen sos 4 sais ho lpn e oe ba poate ae eye at) Use of paint.onm WwoundS..-y..). s. oubch ooo ve oa ao ke haem ules ene eerie ‘Thirtting the topsi.: oo. 2.9iccece.t sce es eed 3 on ut eed dishes). 2 een 284. Pruning should vary with the. thrift of the trées...............0.n eee eo The Best time-to prune... bec ns es ees ome bm beet nm oe hee Oe er) How to iréat Crotches: c4¢2.445 524.4 cda¥ewdcbews oa ome\e asm 905 ceetre eee) Number “Of scattold limbs). oaiets ys Sse 0 ey ea en oe ee 287

CHAPTER: ¥V,

SSETEATIN GA yan wait fess, cnc te puted oie wx lee hcg saodls EulaSy ae ie am a ee Ce The extent of the practices) i«.0s «ke deecene welts p46 Soe on odes ee) Relation uf spraying to yields and pricesi..%. 6c. 6icss.uss0 sets seen eee Kinds: OF-Sprays USOC os ca.sfss ass sete: 2a da lean ee Din MebaIe cores ie as one The. best Hime to Sprays «3.20444 ie ces sacs 4 Fok Sele oo a oy ene let Winter treatment for apple-SCabec a. vee scar ares st sa oe sus cre a ors we eae Method of applying the spray..esssse0ssco5 4-16 saas died bees. ae) eee 203 Risseting of the friiit, 2.2% 2 sas <o/ve's'a cael a5ls tira ans Salting 0 ea

Damace to foliage irom spraying@.. os. <2 .26s ch cas eee eo ce ©

CHAPTER :V1, RENOVATING AN Apple OrcCHARD IN WestTERN New York. By Christian FUG apc Pie eld wsle ves Sav Pataca a = fap wate eal neta: ave ye 0 athe 2 Brenna oes

CHAPTER VII.

NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE AND DISTANCE BETWEEN TREES..............+.+ 299-307 Ntimber Of trées pér dCre. . <cec. si eds pies ee ae eee eee eed eee ‘livges: planted too closely, esc v5 Soc00s 3 onpteecs ooh beds jo eas ce 299 Effects of close planting on yields.and Nealth.......<s:. 24.205... eee Top-grafting or pruning every other row... +. 0024 c..44.0¢ +000 es ea eee LGA: tO: BRIS 4555 dF 0:k fe aw ceeds a5 Se oie are oe 9 care ene ee fais wo a!

CHAPTER VIII. AGE. OF THE (ORCHARDS) 52.4.5: syxec)-q pu) thaw oo veers alse coe bevy e yee ee Date. of plantivigy.. ices cs edie ck aves en oeeeebeg rae esp oe erreur Vields at different ages, << i045 524004 deceh oe ce bewey Oeaan 90 einen

Planting young orchards. .i..... 60. eee, sect cence veces one dsiguae seen ae

CHAPTER 1X.

Sots Ano Soi, Pronvgms: y.- fo )os3d ose cake es 6 aces sing eee ey eee eT ToroGRAPHY—Topograpliical regions .........sseneeees senor tstcnesaesere Gig

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 239

PAGE.

Soirs—The soil types........... 5 se Te es be ree cada ss os 315 NAMI STONY Oats verre cs a eayee Gere aera saahe an. a anata eres 316

NUTONE StOMVven | Oai met aiet ic eis Myre peer eerie ote Rucsalcetee eas Ute rete wien 316 IMItenimitestl Gal OAITIe Seared a oot epee oe eer er See Meee re enna. ce, ON Vincririieetiti ears cil Cleaves an eerar eetimpee perenne matt Like vcs ec ee se GRaN arated Moat ay 317

Oitane. Pravelly. lod prasaaens cies ole cos see Renee oe ae chee eRe a ei, Relation: of the soil to yield of apples.............:00.seeeee cress 3I7 DUMiMaiey OL Me SOU acto mete: oe wei es sees et sos ie ore he ew eveisyencte 318 DRATINAGE— Dire matitral pdraitaGen.. 46.225: n2209 dine tetok 8656 04.8 Sebda wad dann 319

Iosses caused by lack of draind@e:is.. cc se ce ev cedewe ais sne 320

CHAPTER xX.

ISTEGATIONS, AND EXPOSURES: «ciocade ouside aie dediene td sleet £6 vg o oa dadia ss -G257320 Nal aivOnmmore ules sifesmande yl Sas. aea Me auctuee deals hol heh sua ane © ela oe ooo 32 ENSPECtSs (OL (CX POSUTES a.> suisse sho oe elitr pi bie aspects aiid, VIGlIS nt. « x venice ane gees a ve ee eked be sal ot fk ae ue B20

CHAPTER XI.

‘\ COMPARISON OF RENTED ORCHARDS WITH THOSE MANAGED BY THE OWNER, 327-329

(GensnoOre vented OnemanrdSmac cee ae eta woes cose ta ivan ay Ae aden f pk oes oe 327 Effects’ of the rental system om the orchards. .«.........5..6005 004s cee nee 327

Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm..................-.--+2+++ 329

CHAPTER XII. \WERDUP ANODE a rer eee eT em ST rg a, ue CO

MlniTeMey alia GDLCS rom Oils seine. cise repevetere 1:5 Siar tetanar) sanls.62) nx Se one's) cy e-Sub. dues, @ srhnadela 330 Variations within the variety—the selection of scions.................+++ 330

COAPTER S111:

SVE SE One TEE NEPIEA = Sey aree ine ask Sse sto aks 4s Ge oboe sae nd te de 13337340 Msteotatie Wore: SenOuUS Enemies. 42 uly seve oot sence et catale s rete one oe B83 THe AppLe-Scan FuNGUS—Its importance............ 2. ee eee eee ee ee ee 335

NVilaieiS tie: SCADe UNOS: Neeminncmie. wl Sita’ ot Ses cco kaasa gees anasce S35 Relation of the weather to the development of scab.................+ 337 Relative damage on different varieties of apples. ..............0.020++ 338 NEA OMMOROter MimMOlmme gaara de See le sc gece aie Fas apa Sarg aw sue 988 Sas aes 338 ABER OaaNesclmp eter ears a ger oe a ee ee ee fo CNT I ee ae 339 EEAR SPor—Catised’ by the Seal tumeus... 0.2 sce ece esa cet ee tne se ea ee » 339 @ihiemmcanses cones leauiies PObe sae cere ais ated ce canaleironeiis lansiensrss Hi eet were a ee sl ays, vs 340 ea DLISTOte Thea, sraesiaqete a4 Gietcslaarcin veh0)-4 2 Sores wD Belarc sanserd als aocm3 Sis me es ee. B40

240 BULLETIN 226.

PAGE.

THe AppLE-TREE CANKER—DeSCription .....6...cc0 ccc ecccssscevceccesses 341 The extent of the injury by canker, ...i010:...5..0..-.5= Pic vane eae wees 341 ‘The eatise “of (the cankérs. a1 .2. 0,2 0... dn se seen ee eT T'PeX tment: Aons Exeres o taatk vo cae hee oe ee ed 344 COLLAR Ror—Oceurrence and deseription. <2 4+ sa4.00%- $008.09 pas See The cause of the rot Treatment: <iinnica dens da aa ona Sete dace ale eo cea ne eee

CHAPTER ALY,

YIELDS, MARKETS AND PRICES? 552: .34+ 4000/1 ¢:0eenss on exaglhds ¢200000e nee

Motal “yields: tin W avire “COUPLE: <4 vere a cus cece tes eet sium mente hee 349 PNVEDADE VIGldS Gk ACNE. a/s otiac caw ate dice 4d cue, evel cere lel ete een 340

Average yields per tree... scads ase lead 3. Spee fe) eRe fat re Variations: im; yiGld is ccc eure s canoe uses eles 5 aur ichieite 3 er ee 350 LHe- end porate: indusiry. 4c cn.as chew gud.cenls mega eee ee 350 How the crop is disposed of

General considerations concerning marketing. 2. i ..5<...0.0 0 ae sue eee

INVORACEA’ PRICES KM ey oiew me oa ve wee creed g's Wie oie onsale elec 0 se eee 354 ANVGFdoe Income Per ACK. is was cease aa eos eecdeecssssesies e420 2 Coe 354

SUMMARY CONCLUSION vicuaie psn ish oo + £0 080M es hor ea hike boS6 oo wale og tag REPERENGES: Visors Qeuateieees s euch ew aag aleeen egy head alee ee een 301

INTRODUCTION.

GENERAL METHOD OF WORK.

The field work. tember 12, 1903. Nearly all of this time was spent in the apple orchards.

The field work was done between June 10 and Sep-

In Walworth township, which is in the center of the west part of the county, every orchard as large as one acre was ex- amined. In nearly every case the owner was inter- viewed for statistics on variety, age, fertilization, tillage, spraying, past troubles, yields, market, price, ete. The orchard

was examined in order to

determine the site, aspect,

area, distance between at Fic. 37.—Map showing the location of Wayne and

trees, present treatment, Orleans counties, New York.

present condition of health

and crop, pruning, diseases, insects, etc. A three-foot soil auger was a part of the outfit, and frequent borings were made to determine the physical condition of the soil, texture, structure and the drainage con- ditions. Samples for laboratory analyses were taken of the different soil types. In short, an effort was made to study whatever factors enter into the successful production of apples. All the information obtained was entered in the blank report provided for that purpose (see Fig. 38). These reports are preserved in the Department of Horticulture for reference for the future worker and are, of course, not open to the public. The position and approximate size of each orchard with its number is shown on the map prepared by the United States Geological

241

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= pee "NOILVLS LNAWIMAd Xa TIANYOD DE Ra “poy ON ‘AGAUMNS GUVHOAO ‘SaTddV

AN APPLE ORCHARD SurRVEY oF WAYNE County, NEw York. 243

Survey. These maps show the 20-foot contour lines on a scale of one inch to a mile (see Fig. 39). This method of locating the orchard makes it possible to look it up at any time in the future. Very many other general

oe

items were determined, some of which were entered under

"ic. 39.—A reduced photograph of the field map of Walworth township, showing the position and number of the orchards. This map was on a scale of four inches to the

mule,

observations,” and some of which were recorded in a note-book kept for that purpose.

In Ontario township, which hes between the lake and Walworth, every orchard as large as ten acres and a number of smaller ones were likewise examined. Nearly all the other orchards were seen, and a comparison made with those that were carefully recorded.

244 BULLETIN 226.

In Macedon township, which extends from Walworth to the southern boundary of the county, every orchard as large as ten acres and nearly all of those as large as five acres were examined. Practically all the other orchards of this town were examined sufficiently to be able to make comparisons with those recorded.

‘These three townships gave a representative north and south section of the county. The differences in going north and south are very much greater than those from east to west.

The degree of accuracy of the reports —The results are based on all the orchards of Walworth as large as one acre, or 443 orchards con- taining 1,773' acres; and on 131 orchards of the remainder of the county containing 1,987! acres. This is between one-fifth and one-sixth of the orchards of the county. Probably at least one-third of the orchards were examined more or less carefully. The careful records were made of the above number.

The location, site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treat- ment, pruning, present condition, present troubles, soil and soil condi- tions were determined by the observer, aided by any suggestions that the owner might give.

The ages are a question of memory and sometimes of hearsay. The appearance of the trees would usually enable the inspector to avoid any large error. The past troubles except canker-worm, tent cater- pillar and scab or “* fungus” are not often given, as they are not recognized by many growers. ‘This does not by any means indicate that no other important enemies have been present. Some have left their effects so apparent that the observer could, without difficulty, fill in the past troubles. The varieties, methods of former treatment, spraying, fertilization, etc., are fairly accurate, except that the amount of fertilization is not often known, The market and price per bushel are quite accurate. “The farmers are practically all glad to be able to help in the work of the Experiment Station. They understand that the reports are confidential, and therefore have no incentive to give too high yields. The only limit to the accuracy is the memory of the grower. The apple crop is, however, the chief crop and is therefore well remembered. The yields are usually the result of measurement, as the people remember the number of bushels, or the number of pounds, or remember the income and price, from which the yield can be

computed.

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WaAYNE County, NEw YorK. 245

The yields for 1903 were secured by letters to the growers. They doubtless average too high, for those who had a very small crop some- times considered it too small to be worth reporting.

The records of the 1902 yields are the most complete and the most accurate of all.

Method of making the computations.—Since every orchard in Wal- worth was examined, all computations have been made for this town by itself, and separate ones made for the south and for the north parts of the county. In some cases Ontario and Macedon townships were each considered separately. Nearly all these computations when yields are concerned are made for the crops of 1900, I9Q0I1, 1902, 1903. The conclusions have almost invariably been the same for each year and for each part of the county. In this bulletin they have, in most cases, becn summarized under two heads, Walworth and the remainder of the county.

In computing yields under various methods of treatment, the vields of the orchards set before 1880 are ordinarily used. ‘Trees set since that date have mostly not arrived at maturity.

In computing any one item the others have generally been ignored. The justification for this lies in the fact that so many orchards have been examined that other items will balance. For example, in deter- mining the average yields for orchards having trees set at different distances apart, no attention has been given to the care of the orchard. ‘There are orchards set at all distances that have been well cared for and others that are neglected. The large number examined makes an average of conditions. The danger of this method of making calcu- lations lies in possible coordinate factors. The man who tills his orchard may be the man who sprays. Some points of this kind are discussed under the different chapters. To test the method, some compu- tations have been made on the basis of sub-groups of orchards otherwise similarly treated. The results have sometimes been changed in absolute amounts, but have been unchanged in their relation to each other, or have been so slightly changed as not to alter the conclusions to which they point.

The independent calculations for Walworth township and for the north and the south parts of the county, furnish additional checks. There are usually twelve independent calculations—one for each of these divisions for each of the four years. When these results all

246 BULLETIN 226.

point to the same conclusion, they would seem to establish it beyond any reasonable doubt. In this report the results are frequently sum- marized in order to save space. ‘There might seem to be some danger of a large orchard controlling the average, but in no case of any importance has such an orchard changed the relative order of the results.

In making most of the computations, there were orchards for which the information or yields were not secured. “These were, of course, omitted, just as an orchard. that was not seen. The computations always include every orchard for which the particular data were secured.

Hork in Orleans county.—During the summer of 1904, orchards to the number of 564, including 4,881 acres, were similarly examined in Orleans county. In this county the writer was assisted by Mr. C. Bues. Some of the pictures in this report were obtained in that county. Many references are also made to it, but all the tabulations are from Wayne county. The tables for the Orleans county work will be published later.

General observations on the work.—The method of doing the work and the kind of information sought were much changed during the progress of the investigation. In the beginning the type of soil was thought to be of much more importance than it really is. The most important points were not considered in the first few reports. The relative importance of the different problems was better seen as the work progressed. The report blank (Fig. 38) 1s very different from the first one used. Many improvements were made when similar work was started in Orleans county, but there are others that will he made if another county is studied.

The succeeding pages may be said to be results of experiments of the past seventy-five vears in apple-growing in Wayne county. “ every farm is an experiment station and every farmer the director thereof.” But when these experiments are viewed singly, there are so many factors that the success or failure is as likely to be assigned to a wrong cause as to the right one. As a result we have the great diversity of opinion that exists among apple-growers. It is by studying and tabulating results from large numbers of orchards that important and unimportant factors can be properly correlated.

The standards in this bulletin are not ideals, but are in all cases based on what successful men are doing. No one man is following all of them, but each one has been tried. It is impossible to give credit to each

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw YoRK. 247

farmer who has aided in the work, for that would mean to enumerate six hundred in Wayne county and an equal number in Orleans county, but I can not refrain from mentioning the willingness with which nearly every one gave the information about his orchard and about his successes and failures. It would be very hard to find a region where the farmers are more willing to cooperate with every enterprise of the experiment stations. In writing this bulletin, I have tried to keep in mind the many questions asked by the farmers, as well as to present the tables of the

results of various methods of treatment.

248 BULLETIN 220,

CHAPTER Tf. THe MAGNITUDE OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY.

Fruit production per capitaa—The commercial demand in the United States for fresh fruit has been created during the past fifty years. The small quantity of fruit that was produced half a century ago was largely used for wine and cider manufacture, but fresh fruit and canned fruit are now among the staple articles of diet for the laborer as well as for the wealthy. Table 1 shows that the value of the orchard products on the farm has increased from 33 cents per capita in 1850, to $1.11 per capita in 1900. If all fruits are included the value would be about fifty per cent greater, the amount for 1900 being $1.74 per capita (see Table 2). Much more than these amounts must be spent

TABLE T.

Relative increase of population and of value of orchard products from the census

*Values of orchard products are for the year preceding the census.

*The value of orchard products was not given for r8go.

°“Tn 1870 the value of orchard products returned was $47,335,189. The reduction of this amount by the then existing premium on gold (25.3 per cent on the average for the twelve months of the census year, May 31, 1869, to June 1, 1870) would yield about $38,000,000.” Tenth Census, Statistics of Agriculture, page xxii.

249

250 BULLETIN 226. by the consumer for the transportation, commissions and profits in-

crease the cost several times. A larger proportion of the crop may now be exported, but the great change has been in the creation of a home demand for fresh fruit, such as does not exist in any other country. The great fruit market of the world is the American work- man, and his staple fruit is the apple.

The magnitude of the apple crop —Of the total number of orchard trees

reported in 1go00, 55 per cent were apple, and these produced 83 per

TABLE, 2:

Relative rank in fruit production of the ten leading fruit-producing states, from the census of 1000.

OrcHarbD Propucts. ALL Fruits,

Total value. Percent. Rank. Total value. Per cent. Rank. | United States. ...3.4..0229% $83,751,940 | 100.0 |,...% $131,429; 517 || Tdo.g 22. =. (OeiUisaihiye ew rg hee eee te 14, 526, 786 Ea I | 28,280,104 | 2125 I Wew YOrk. 2. .4.0. bene aee ee 10, 542, 272 12.6 2 15,844,346 | 12.1 | 2 Pennsylvania...... a barre 9 7,976.464 9.5 3 9, 884, 809 Tis 3 COM cy gatrece ee wea tol aanee 6.141, 118 7.3 4 8, gOI, 220 6.8 4 Pi nOIsey sek hs chews dete: 3,778, 811 4.5| 5 | 555,214 4.1 | 6 NCIC AT on Set sce eee 3,675, 845 4.4 6 5.859, 362 4.5 | 5 [iste hes c): ee een er 3. 166, 338 3.8 4 4,630, 169 Bhs 7 WiSScihl a1 als to ars eo 2,944,175 2.5 8 4,300,613 | 353 8 Viren amtghs 2 mete aye osked 2,662. 483 3.2 9 3.575, 475 | 9 2a ee oO New Jersey: .. ee2<c.).e = 2.594, 981 2 cil 10 4, 082. 788 hog! 9 Leading fruit couitics in New York, OrcHARD Propucts. ALL Fruits, Per cent lPer cent Total value, aes Rank. Total value. | ea Rank, crop, | crop.

IFAC AT ao heaves ys - $1,078, 042 Tow I $1, 184, 482 eat 2 COMBAT S casa toga as ete 839, 732 8.0| 2 875. 270 55 | 6 IM ONPOG a 4204284 04 2 yee 768, 927 wa) 928, 673 5-9}, 4 VV BATRGE al eass Sete ge he 584, 254 5.5| 4 903, 875 Gra 5 VEAL TOy targa ate as Aes 497, 354 Cy A ee 730, 222 4.6 7 DGIGCHESS. 4: Jas 2 eee B77 ee 3.6 6 429.670 ay 10 Wistert Masses feabeae see ’ 354, 262 3.4 7 g&g, 024 6:2) 3 Wreestchester.. 2:5 seen tah 400,010 219) 6 329, 419 2.1 | 15 COlimbDifice: ess nae ees 300, 645 2.0 9 434, 660 ae 9 GHaUtauGta sons scene ees 296, 679 2.8 10 1,620,923 | 10.2 | I

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 251

cent of the total number of bushels of fruit reported. The average production of apples is about two to three bushels per capita.

Of the crop of 175,000,000 bushels in 1899, the States of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio produced nearly 69,000,000 bushels, or over New

York justly claims first place in the quantity and quality of her apple

39 per cent of the total crop in the United States (see Table 3). crop. Apples are grown in nearly all parts of the State, but it is in the lake counties, Niagara, Orleans, Monroe and Wayne that the industry has been most extensively developed. In Igoo, fifteen states outside of New York had a greater number of apple-trees than the combined number in these four counties, but only nine of these states gave a larger crop in 1899. No other county in the United States pro- duced as many apples as any one of these. Only four counties: one in Illinois, one in Missouri and two in Arkansas had as many irees as any one of these.

The production of evaporated apples—\Vayne county has come to ihe

According to the

market the great bulk of its apple crop as evaporated apples. other counties sell nearly all their crop in barrels. last census (see Table 4), \Wayne county produces over two-thirds of the evaporated fruit in New York, and produces an amount exceeded by only three states. Two of these, Oregon and North Carolina, only slightly exceed \Wayne county. This report includes all kinds of evaporated fruit. Of evaporated apples, Wayne county doubtless pro- duces more than any State in the Union, except, of course, New York (see Table 41). TABLE 3.

Number of apple-trees and yicld of apples, from the census of 1890 and of 1900.

CENSUS OF 1890. CENSUS OF 1g¢0.

7 : Bushels of | a | No. trees of | Bushels of ad

eae ae | gute ae | § ag goers year 5 United States....| 120,152,795 | 143,105,689 |....| 201, 704, 764 | 175,307,626 4 New York....... 14, 428, 381 | 8,493,846 7 | 15,054,932 | 24, 111,257 I Pennsylvania ... 9, 097, 700 7,552,710 | 10 Die 7 7Ay err 24,060, 651 2 OI Ol tes 8 esr: 10, 860,613 | 13,789,278 | 1 12, 952, 625 20, 617, 480 3 Mledent «haa area 4, 253, 364 8, 391,425 | 8 8,190,025 | 9,835,982 4 WTO TS es terre ie - 6, 949. 336 9,600,785 | 4 13, 430, 006 9, 178, 150 5 Michigan...... 8, 582, 386 | 13,154,626 | 2 10, 927, 899 8,931,569 | 6 nidiatias.....+-. 6,089, 106 8, 784,038 | 5 8, 624, 593 8, 620, 278 "1 West Virginia....| 2,870,535 4, 439,978 | 13 5,441, 112 7,495,743 | 8 NWSSOUT ba eee oka | 8, 150, 442 8,698,170 6. 20,040, 399 6, 496, 436 ) Kentucky «...... 5,730, 144 10,679,389 | 31! 8,757,238 6,053, 717 10

252 BULLETIN 226. TABLE 3—Concluded. Leading Counties in New York. CENSUS OF 1890. CENSUS OF 1,00. “2 f. P Bushels at = . No. ecaut Bushels of er

No. b g ae ores’ F ; c

TABLE 4.

Pounds of dried and evaporated fruit produced in 1899, from the census of 1900.

ee ‘Per cent., Rank. RISMROG HLMLER vig nro od 6c ow ge TWA. aR oN Urry eT | 144, 804,638 | 100.0 |..... CANTO iilh. 4 as aauutin ¥ a wes DLA) Suma eo ate kas a | 197,035, 727 |) ‘ole I PUGH, “RAs a 204i 0h cde oe wen Ui ve woeneea ls ea eeeeeel 3,658,610 | 2.5 2 CSET ra ey aie Wis eel nae eae ees ka OP, i 2,818,200 | 1.9 3 yore Cin Someta hic a boo se ven wns te Sie en Wee 2,744,450 | 1.9 | 4 2 CTUVERBER: 4s ca hue ea be aed eee e sos sees nate y se ahipeees aa 2,533,810 | 1.8 | 5 ee | Counties in New York.

| - sara ae cent

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product, WV OVC 65 0 Sioned ha eR on tase ewe heed enha aoe hes eeome 2,698,350 | 73.8 I COBUBE in 4:45: sislsaies babe ba eaee PPR a oon c ak sane paswiteehs 508, 300 | 13.9 2 PV ALCEAIN isis! o¥6, d Stay Oa Wie etea gS eer ye eee 105, 820 2.9 3 WORE OE) «5 vai sgiere da cee Se oo ac ed ale nee 87, 160 2.4 4 COPleATS) os a4 e ee ee eg ey Seer ee A Pe eee | g, 500 0.3 10

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AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEW YorK. = 255 TABLE 6. Exports of Apples.* Fresu. DRIED |

Barrels. Value. etsy Pounds. Value seb lc MOS laces sa ss 2 oe 28, 842 Sees OTe AT las wacemeeere || eee hae seme | eee Cy ueernets a tance 18, 411 ARMOR S| Se oie Weateus eit ori | Warren ete OM aytt Sito aus, MOG ertee tis etm oe. wt 45,075 LOMRZOR le ea Ou linet ve ater: jas tees reas ners ea MON Ape yates. =. Ae 15, 320 eee OOM sees |e tee ea cadet | eat ete oraicteata ant Mic Pee ee - MOS SW. ens Gec cates o 33,950 HO 7A OAS (eo le 7 | ernst rete Pete rie ee || eae, es MOG Oshels tes ais 5 S12 ieee 74, 287 Te Cor nie: OA ml mee aera cremlt eereteena cess. |) aexceineed: TOS Titec dewsas ese 33, 201 is, Sot cy Wess e en ieer cesta) uae San MOS Oetetteete a are isis 277 il TANG OREO EOS Wie Bisse ea eee wetness OG O Matas se ners 2,979 OONOOS TSAO se Mears ceeeir eee eal ice rena acts fon | leeds dane MGOO tree oc cies eves 78, 809 | POOHOSS || er Oli mean tom all Wares ceristaceh| vccgsuereat Annual average. 38, 860 SHOAL OG Soe Oe creamer eati ose lee areel oem coniee eee ey eke Be MOO Mrs sbe erate e's Ae 1123523 SEGOmO RE Ne O nl mmenn Seeete ener st6 Seb? WU Weert cnet OO2 Presets fens ace 66, 767 eNO Pe ieee ialcteva Week paca ca nl ata eee eee eee MSOB) Pemes coe Sols.s = 174, 502 BOAMOLOMES OG e|Wrtie taact bare tl iste oor screa ts Ill oie aoe TSO Berescesasingrs 95 2s 183, 969 487,140 | 2.65 | 2,841, 532 $246,051 | $0.087 TOO States de ee. 2s 120, 317 481, 334 | 4.00 892, 075 105, 548 118 NCOO Preieieeecoits...2,25 50. O12 246,118 | 4.77 | 551, 350 55, 205 100 Rss OF de wee eae ee 20,577 142, 023 | 4.80 | 510, 750 79; 922 150 1868 .............| 19, 874 94,748 | 4.77 | 775, 700 121,910 Bay

IRs 00 Ra ieee aCe + } + | +) ii | MO Otreara aie x, ees 203. 38,157 | 250, 013: | 6.03) | 836, 110 79. 387 095 Annual average. 88,589 | $283,810 |$3.20 | 1,067,920 | $114,681 | $0.107 MO he essere: 49, 088 $136, 693 |$2.7 1050; 122 $79,026 | $0.069 HO 2 epee ects isss <a; | 36, 508 198,948 | 5.45 | 2,644,592 190, 560 072 Moat ale vac sha | 241, 663 819,664 | 3.39 | 4,483, 186 272,028 061 MS 7Atceaructecaler| £0.08: | 44,928 204,312 | 4.55 | 4, 234, 736 294, 893 070 ROMS tea ere Peseta 276, 209 722,247 | 2.61 | 4,053, 696 320, 193 o8o Ms OMe: Meese oe «2 64, 472 221,764 | 3.44 713, 840 67.915 0905 its) 7 ee eee eee 417, 065 986, 112 | 2.36 | 14, 318, 052 920, 292 064 ity felaeacl a eae ene IOI, 617 386, 261 | 3.80 | 4, 188,173 260. 085 062 MOO meeie eases kee. | 505.018 980, 455 | 1.94 | 7,379,836 296, 794 | 040 eon ed sacec yee: | 407,911 | 1,190,560 | 2.92 | 3,158, 367 192, 069 ob1 Annual average. 214, 448 $584, 702 [$2.73 | 4,632, 460 $289.986 $0.063 ROOM Messrs GSi~ Haare: I, 117,065 | $2, 301, 334 |$2.06 | 22,623,652 | $1, 247, 891 | $0.055 iteteye) | once eee 176, 704 539, 543 | 3.05 | 2,893, 270 228,945 | 079 ites) eee eee | 313,921 | 1,085, 230 | 3.46 | 10, 187,957 786. 800 077 ioral ti ane ee | 105, 400 22,447 | 4.01 | 5,558,746 394, 350 O71 MOOG acleta wes, Bae | 668, 867 | 1,572,126 | 2.35 | 18,416,573 | 1,062,859 058 iRtetel ait See eee 744,539 | 1,810,606 | 2.43 | 10, 473, 183 | 548. 434 052 (Rots) Ae 591, 868 | 1, 382,872 | 2.34 | 8,130, 396 | 413, 363 051 Mocs aces ood e'«.a' de 480, 570 | 1, 378, 801 | 2.82 | 11,803, 161 | 812, 682 | 069

*Bulletin 64, and circular 16, Division of Foreign Markets. of Agriculture. * Record not kept.

U. S. Department

3ULLETIN

220.

TABLE 6—-Concluded.

FRESH. Driep.

Barrels. | Value. pres Pounds. Value. ee

POGOe sod PG cages 942, 406 | $2, 249, 375 |$2.39 | 22,102,579 | $1,201,070 | $0.054 TOGO nace Ea eee 453,506 | 1,231,436 | 2.72 | 20,861,462 | 1,038, 682 .050 Annual average 560, 385 | $1, 307.377 |$2.49 | 13.305, 098 $773,508 | $0.058 1891 Gis. allen wrens 135, 207 $476, 897 [$3.53 | 6,973, 168 $409,605 | $0.059 THOS re sclicee eons 938, 743 | 2,407,956 | 2.57 | 26,042,063 | 1, 288, 102 .049 itn 3k Ree wer 408,014 | 1,097,967 | 2.69 | 7,966, 819 482, 085 001 POOF ov aataree nes 78, 580 242,617 | 3.09 | 2,846,645 168, 054 .059 SDE kwhs cuts oe ss 818,711 | 1,954,318 | 2.39 | 7,085,946 401, 214 005 TOO eh 4 Wu vic ee 360. 002 930, 289 | 2.58 | 26,691,963 | 1,340,507 .050 igela yee eee eae 1,503,981 | 2,371,143 | 1.58 | 30,775,401 | 1,340,159 044 4.) ee eee ee 605,300 | 1,684,717 | 2.78 | 31,031, 254 1,897, 725 O01 TOOO Gass Sepyedets 380, 222 I, 210,459 | 3.18 | 19, 305. 739 T; 2455733) | .005 DGOO Ace steers 526,636 | 1,444,655 | 2.74 | 34,964,010 | 2,247,851 | .004 Annual average 575; 549 $1, 382, 102 $2 40 | 19, 368, 301 | $1, 088.104 | $0.056 DOCU Iu xine eal neied 883.673 | $2,058,964 |$2.33 | 28. 309,023 | $1,510,581 | $0.053 O02). seq eee ee ts 459,719 | 1.628.886 | 3.54} 15,664,468 | 1.190, 593 .076 1008. 9h ed eqn yen 1,656,129 | 4,381,801 | 2.65 | 39.646, 297 | 2. 378, 635 .060 1904 2,018, 262 | 5,446,473 | 2.70 | 48,301,665 | 2,701, 421 .058

Areas —There are in Walworth township 1,773 acres of orchard

made up of areas as large or larger than one acre.

tains about 34!2 square miles.

This township con-

There are, therefore, 51 acres of apples

per square mile; or a little over 8 per cent of the land is devoted to

orchards.

in Macedon about 19 acres.

In Ontario township there are about 40 acres per square mile,

With the exception of Walworth and prob-

ably Marion townships, it may be said that the area devoted to orchards

increases as we approach the lake.

The total area devoted to apples in the county is about 21,000 acres.

The area of the county is 621 square miles.

apples per square mile, or 5.3 per cent.

This gives 33.8 acres of

The census shows that there are

305,299 acres of improved land in farms.

per cent of this area.

The apple orchards equal 6.9

According to the census report for 1899, there were 796,610

of bearing age” in the county.

‘

* trees

This survey shows the average num-

ber per acre to be 41.8. This number of trees would therefore repre-

sent an area of about 109,000 acres.

Probably 2,000 acres were not of

bearing age, or have been set since 1899. ‘This would seem to support

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 257

the above estimate, or perhaps the estimate substantiates the census returns, for this work should be much more accurate than the census.

The average area for each proprietor in Walworth is 5.4 acres. This includes all orchards as large as one acre. In the remainder of the county such small orchards were not recorded, so that the average does not give an accurate idea of the average size. The average of those examined was 17.2 acres.

The development of the commercial orchard.—Halt a century ago the agriculture of Western New York was grain raising and general farm-

Fic. 40.—Many of the public roads are lined with apple-trees.

ing. The orchards were “kitchen orchards.” They were planted around the house or in some corner that could not be used for the regular crops. The busy farmer paid little attention to the trees. He merely gathered the apples, and gave about the same attention to the orchard that the boys gave to the chestnut tree. The apples were a clean gift. If there were enough for the kitchen and the cider barrel the farmer was satisfied. He had no quarrel with the worms or the scab fungus. The more worms the more cider apples, and since the farmer sometimes appreciated the cider barrel fully as much as he did the apple barrel, he was willing to share the crop with the insects.

258 BULLETIN 226.

About 1860 men began to plant real commercial orchards. Jor the first time in the history of the new world, large commercial apple orchards were planted with a view to selling the fruit. It is no wonder that some mistakes were made. “The old ideas gained from the kitchen orchard and cider manufacture were naturally carried over into the new industry. Little was really known about the apple-tree. No one knew much about insects and fungi, or how to treat them. Nor did they know how to market fruit. Transportation and markets had to be developed. The poor fruit and low prices discouraged many men. A few even cut down their orchards.

But these years accomplished much. The cheap apples educated the taste of the public and created a demand for more apples. Together, the farmer and Experiment Station man have worked out methods of culture, and have learned how to control the enemies of the apple.

But it takes time for new ideas to become established. The farmer is conservative. It is well that he is so. Because he moves slowly, he moves surely. Ele never needs to retrace his steps. \We cannot ex- pect every one to accept all the new ideas in orchard treatment as soon as they are advanced. It has always required a generation of men to establish any new agricultural system. Changes must largely come through the new generation. Some mature men can readily adapt themselves to new conditions, but it is usually the young man, born under these conditions, who really accepts them.

The many neglected orchards are records of the agriculture of the past, the growing number that are well cared for are the forerunners of the new. ‘ In the next fifty years the lake counties of western New York seem destined to become one continuous fruit farm of apples, pears, peaches, cherries, plums and small fruits. |

The change from general farming to fruit farming has been very gradual. ‘The decrease in the fertility of the soil and western compe- tition have forced men who were trained in grain farming and who preferred that work to become fruit growers. The grain crops have generally ceased to be profitable when grown for market. This has directed attention to the small apple orchard which has so frequently supported a family when the remainder of the farm gave no profit, or an actual loss. ‘There are many men who still neglect the orchard to care for the field crops when there is not time to take good care of both, but others take the businesslike view and tend to the most profit-

able crop first.

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 259

All through this report the fewer orchards, poorer care, and less yields in the south part of the county are apparent. This difference may be due partly to the more favorable climate near the lake, but this factor is a minor one. The south part of the county has, in general, soils that retain their fertility longer than those in the north part. The grain crops consequently continued profitable for a longer time. The orchards are less profitable because less care is given to them. When equally well cared for they have given as good crops as have those in the north part of the county.

The last few years have seen a rapid improvement in orchard inanagement. Ten years ago there were few cultivated orchards ex- cept those in which crops were grown. Orchards were quite commonly considered to be an unprofitable investment. How could they be profitable when not tilled, pruned, fertilized or sprayed? But a gradual improvement has been taking place and has been reflected in the increased profits, until apples are now looked upon as the money- producing crop of the county. Nearly all orchards have received im- proved care in some respect. It may have been nothing more than a spraying or pruning, or an application of manure when all of these were needed, but the trees have almost invariably responded to any kind of improved care. Fourteen per cent have been distinctly renovated during the past ten years. These have been fairly well cared for in every way.

The canker worm formerly devastated large numbers of orchards year after year. Spraying came into popularity in combating this pest. The canker worm is now almost exterminated, but the many other good effects of spraying have firmly established this practice. Even those orchards which are not sprayed must be greatly benefited, because the men who do spray help to keep the insect enemies of the entire neighbor- hood in check.

But what has been done in the past ten years in renovating orchards is small in comparison with what remains to be done. The apple- consuming public is constantly demanding a better product. This means that the fruit-grower who can not or will not produce good apples must fall out of the race. Each year a large number of such men is giving place to energetic men who are not satisfied to grow anything but the best. It is these good fruit-growers that will insure the continued

supremacy of New York apples.

260 BULLETIN 220.

Picking the crop, The customary method,

CHAPTER II. TTULAGE.

Acreage of tilled and untilled orchards—About 30 per cent of the orchards that were set before 1880 were tilled in 1903. ‘This percent- age is slightly below what it would have been in a favorable season. Vhe very dry weather in the early spring prevented many trom plowing. .

About half of the orchards of the county have been in sod five to ten years or more. The other half are tilled more or less. In the south part very few old orchards are tilled,—only 12 per cent in 1903. In the north part tillage is much more common. It is practiced more in Walworth township than in any other part of the county. Here less than one-third of the orchards are in sod permanently (see Table 7 and 8).

TABLE 7.

Treatment prior to 1903. Trees set before r8o,

R YDER OF THE - | EMAINDER OF TH RuTiari@euaay

| County. TREATMENT. \Seseeea ea - a Cae cae No.or~ | Per 0. or- Per 0.or- er | chards, | Acres cent.! chards Acres, |cent.| chards. Acres, cent. a | | PL al| . - , ; 7 | ae j _ Tilled 5 yearsor more..| 44| 307% | 25 | 12| 219% |15| 56 527% | 20 Tilled most years..... | OAT) 124265 4.20 8 208 14| 72] 450 iby) Sod most: years, tilled | | occasionally.<..<.....| 73 Bee cr | 18 195% 13] QI 518'% 19 Sod 5 years, or more.. | 87 | 335 28 58 | 852% | 58| 145 | 1187% | 44 TABLE 8. Treatment in 1003 of orchards set before r8So. 5 : ae ae —— ; eeereee WatworTH. Soutu Part County. Nor’H PartCounty.| Entire County. TREATMENT. mae AF aS ae ae PCS Te = ot Acres | oe ST | Acres | oe ot Acres oe St Acres a Fa 63 d| os inv) os eh Tee: | cos * ja 9 Ze ees heed eas oes Ps — 7 a 7 ele — Sod(not pastured), 132 |. 460 30, 9, 95 23 | 17 | 218% | 19 | 158 | 773% | 25 Sod (cattle pas- | } GUE) ie tale eas oes mn! 242) | 224) TS 17332 | As |} 14 | 333 29 | 103 | 848'% | 27 Sod (sheep pas- | | CURE) Fee eels eae 8| 47 | 3| 5| 44 II | 11 | 239 | 21 |) 24 | 330 II Sod (hog pasture)} 44] 151 | 10} 6] 46 | 11] 3 27 | 2) 53) 22 oi a a ae | joa eed — — / = | Motalisodes.... 255 | 1000 | 65 | 38 | 358% | 88} 45 | 817% | 71 | 338 \2176 70 Mited s 5. <nh-asau os 124| 538% 35] 6] 40 12 | 17 | 343 30 | 147 | 930% | 30 | | |

261

262 BULLETIN 226.

Crops were grown in 1903 in about one-third of the tilled orchards. About 8 per cent of the entire area, or 27 per cent of the tilled area, was sown to cover-crops, to be plowed under. The remainder were tilled without any crop, but a cover-crop of weeds was quite common.

Three-fourths of the orchards set since 1879 were tilled in 1903. Crops were grown in all but 7 per cent of those that were tilled. The young orchard generally takes its place as one field in the crop rota- tion. This keeps it in sod about one-fourth of the time, in small grain

one-fourth of the time, and in tilled crops half the vears (Table 9).

TABLE 9.

Treatment in 1003 of orchards set since 1879.

| WaLwortu. | aad ee ha Ae Entire County

TREATMENT. | a a :

ee ae ind | Sod (not pastured)........ | #5): aa 19 4| 16% | 4| 17} §7% 9 Dod: (Pastired)< es... 4 3 I1l% 5 | 4.) 82 | 20 | 7! 93% 15 i GedlesOul aye e340 orl eke 16 | 52% | 24 8 | 98% | 24 24 | I51 24 Ue wie eer eae es tw 48 | 163% | 76| 16} 312 | 76 64| 475% | 76 | | |

Yields of tilled and untilled orchards.—Table to gives the yields for four years of orchards that have been tilled every year for at least five years previous to the crop reported, those that were tilled over half the years, those that were tilled occasionally but not half the time, and for those that have been in sod every year for at least five years.

It will be seen that the tilled orchards have given a uniformly larger yield than those in sod, the four-year average of the tilled ones being 8o per cent above that of the untilled. Perhaps the most striking point in the tables is the uniform agreement of the averages for each of the three parts of the county and for each of the four years. It should be remembered that these tables include every orchard set before 1880, for which reports of vields could be obtained, and that every orchard in Walworth was examined. There can be no further question as to whether the average sod or the average tilled orchard in Wayne county gives the

larger yield.

263

An Apple ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York.

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iOT, Aisa |,

264 BULLETIN 226.

A part of this very great difference is doubtless due to other factors. The man who regularly tills his orchard is more likely to fertilize, prune and spray well. ‘Vo see how much of this difference is due to tillage and how much is due to other factors another classification was made.

Table 11 shows the average vields of those orchards that have been fairly well cared for. They differ only in the factor of tillage. All have received some fertilization, have been fairly well pruned, are not diseased or in bad condition from any cause. Of these well cared for orchards the tilled ones gave an average of 35 per cent above the untilled. This tabulation doubtless gives too high a yield for the

TABLE IT. Vield in bushels of tilled and sod orchards. Average for the entire county of trees set before r88o0. Orchards all well cared for.

| | 1900. Igor. TREATMENT. —— ; ; =. | No. Acres, | ee No. Acres | a Tilled 5. Yeats OF MOTE ys. os cosa ar ee = 17534 BAS |) Be 1774 99 Tilled most years................. 22 ISI ane) } 21 188 38 SOMEMMOSE VOR. ceric s opps #s sks 24 | 209 260 25 244% 72 mod 5 years Ormore,:....s+-s00%- 25 206 224 | 31 240 45 TABLE t1—Concluded. 1g02. | 1G03. | Beure TREATMENT. : a ‘ | ? K | year ; aes * | Average | + nonce Average average. No. Acres. vield. | No. | Acres, | yield. | g§ a | | | Tilled 5 years or more....| 38 | 40134 31r | 23) 345 | “S20 Wee Filled most years......... 38 | 261% 339 | 16 99 '> 249 245 SOG Most Pears; (cian ne yes 46 | 365% | 235 | 15 ize | aay 206 Sod 5 years or more...... 47 35614 209 | 22 15734 | 263 200

orchards in sod, for in making it all diseased ones were thrown out. Jn many cases these should have been included, for the disease fre- quently gets a foothold because the sod has lowered the vitality of the trees. The real difference due to sod will therefore lie between the 80 per cent shown by Table 10 and the 35 per cent shown by Table 11. Does tillage pay?—These tables do not show that every sod orchard should be tilled, but they do show that it would pay to till the average

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WayNE County, NEw York. 265

one. Ifa sod orchard is giving good yields, and if the trees are mak- ing sufficient growth to keep up their vitality, it may be desirable to keep it in sod. [By the liberal use of barnyard manure or straw mulch, an orchard may be kept in good condition without tillage. The trouble is that so many do not receive enough of either. The same results may be accomplished with much less manure if the orchard is tilled. If the orchard is in sod and is not yielding well, or if the trees are losing their vitality, even if the yield is still good, it will probably pay to till.

Itc. 41.—One year’s growth in a cornfield. A five-acre orchard planted by Jay E. Allis. Compare with Fig. 42.

Whatever the best treatment of a thrifty orchard may be, there is no question about the advisability of tilling one that needs renovating or of tilling young trees (see page 309, and Figs. 41, 42, 43).

There are some marked advantages of sod. It requires less work to leave the trees in sod. If the land is very stony, the tillage brings the stones to the surface and makes a bad place for the apples to fall. Sod is also better to haul spray rigs over. Perhaps the greatest advantage is in having a sod for the apples to fall on. This is par-

ticularly desirable when the entire crop is to be shaken off for evapo-

200 BULLETIN 226,

rating. Cover-crops will, to some extent, take the place of sod, but it is difficult to get a good cover-crop under large trees. Apples usually color better on sod and are said to keep better, but are not so large. Some

experiments are now being conducted on these points.

1G. 42.—One year’s growth when set in timothy sod. A 13-acre orchard in Orleans county. (Compare with Fig. qt.) Here the trees are of secondary importance.

Village, fertilization, pruning and spraying are the chief factors that enter into good care of an orchard. One or more of these may some- times be omitted without seriously affecting the trees. Tillage may lessen the need for fertilization. — Fertili- zation may help to make up for lack of tillage. Some years few insects or fungi attack the trees, so that spraying is not much needed. Very frequently a grower

becomes impressed

with the importance

Pic. 43.—4 few furrows plowed along cach tree row lessen the evil effects of sod. TVould it not pay better to raise only trlled crops? tors and makes a

of one of these fac-

hobby of it to the ex- clusion of all the others; but the most successful man is the one who keeps a proper balance between all four, and who does not expect spraying

to replace manure, tillage or pruning, or vice versa.

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. .267

Where does your orchard come, in the table on page 350? Is it where you want it to be? If so, continue your present methods; if not, then try to find out where the trouble is.

The results of good and bad treatment are not always apparent ihe first year.—The great difficulty in determining what kind of treatment pays best in any particular orchard is the fact that it may be several years before the results are apparent in the difference in crops. If this fact were kept in mind by the orchardists, a very large part of the differ-

Fic. 44.— Tillage v. neglect. The rows on the right were left in sod, those on the left were tilled. The trees were otherwise similarly treated, and are of the same age.

ence of opinion as to the best method of caring for an orchard would disappear. Very frequently a grower has followed a few years of good care by a period of neglect and has received an increased yield as a result. The trees may be making almost no new wood, and may be so lowered in vitality as to be easy victims of canker and other diseases. Yet the increased crop may have persuaded the grower that this is the ideal treatment. No care can be good if it does not look out for the future of the orchard. Many orchards need treatment that

will actually decrease the yield for several years, while care that will

208 BULLETIN 220.

greatly increase the yield may be destroying the trees or shortening their period of life. The most profitable crop that could be grown in many orchards is new wood, and consequent new vigor in the trees. The returns may be more apparent in five or ten years than in the first

year or two. Occasionally there is an orchard that is growing too ,

culture.’ This twelve-acre orchard could be renovaled and made a good orchard.

1G. 45.—One kind of

fast and that would be benefited by sod, but they are not common. A much larger number are dying back faster than new wood is being formed.

In Fig. 44 is shown an experiment in orchard management that was carried on by T. G. Yeomans & Sons for many years. The trees on the

left were tilled and fertilized. Those on the right were fertilized the same

An AppLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 269

but were left in timothy sod. The trees in sod are so badly weakened that the land has been plowed and a start made toward renovating them. Methods of tillage.

This is frequently done so as to have less spring work. [Early spring

Orchards are commonly plowed in the fall.

plowing would seem to be much more desirable for an orchard. ‘The grass or weeds will hold the snow and leaves.

In a few orchards the roots are so near the surface as to prevent plowing. Such an orchard may be tilled with a spading harrow, disk or, on sandy soils, with a spring-tooth harrow.

The ideal system of tillage for most orchards is early plowing or disking, followed by clean tillage until about July Ist. Some kind of a cover-crop is then sown. This cover-crop will produce humus to be plowed under; it furnishes a partial substitute for sod for the apples to fall on; it will help to remove surplus water during the latter part of the season and thus cause the fruit to color better. Fig. 61 and the frontispiece show orchards that are receiving this kind of treatment.

Methods of sod treatment—Many of the orchards that are in sod are pastured by cattle, hogs, sheep and horses. Ffrom some hay is cut: from others the grass is not removed,—usually because there 1s not enough to pay for cutting. A very few farmers are trying the so-called mulch method of cutting the grass that grows in the orchard and leaving it where it falls or throwing it under the trees. There were not enough of them, nor had the work been continued long enough so that a statistical report could be made.

Table 12 shows the yields for 1902, with the different methods of sod treatment. The number of orchards is not sufficient to give con- clusive results. It would appear that pasturing with cattle is the

worst possible treatment for an orchard, a conclusion that is in TABLE 22: Yields in bushels for 1902, with various methods of sod treatment. Trees set before

18So.

TREATMENT. No. leeAcres: Average

Bastuned “with HOGS es seem wae .see eee ace ceca. aes 22 105% 271 IPastured with Sheepatis 2.5. secs5 56 cite ccie baa cue 15 232 216 PraStAG WIM CABLE eect sy aers.a05 2 apa eolele se 44 kab a6 54 302 | 159 Od Ol PAsiired scien. matey cycv eee sauce aa cides alteravars 47 | 256% | 185

BULLETIN 220.

2/79

“4oInNpoOdAd JUI]J2IXI UN uW29qQ SkoAYD Soy PUD SAVIN W9d}4N0J POS UI UWIIg SOY SIy[ “PADYI4O POS payout p—o9b ‘91g

An APPLE ORCHARD SuRVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 271

accord with the appearance of the orchards thus pastured. Cattle rub on the trees, break the branches and browse the limbs as high as they can reach. The few dollars that it would cost to procure a regular pasture for them is lost many times over by the damage to the trees. Horses are not so frequently pastured in the orchards, but are equally injurious. In one case a good young orchard had nearly every tree stripped of its bark by a span of horses. The orchard was worth about five times as much as the horses.

Next in the scale of injuriousness to pasturing cattle in an orchard is the raising of hay in it. The hay crop grows in the spring at the time when the apple-trees make their growth. It therefore uses the plant-food and water at the time when the trees need it most. If the grass is left on the ground the mulch helps to preserve the moisture, and leaves the plant-food so that the damage is not so great.

Sheep crop the grass close to the ground, and so to some extent prevent the large evap- = a meer ua CE oration that occurs in a hay |-a ae cet

field. The manure dropped Fic. 47.—Shecp have removed about a barrel

y is als consider- by them is also of conside of apples from each tree in this orchard.

able value. Fig. 46 shows an

orchard that is pastured by sheep early in the season. This is one of the best sod orchards. Large applications of barnyard manure are used. Several of the limbs that show a lack of foliage are infected by canker. If sheep are allowed to run in the orchard during the latter part of the season, they frequently pick many apples. If prices are good, the apples eaten may be of more value than the sheep (see Fig. 47).

Pasturing with hogs seems to give better yields than any other method of sod treatment. The hogs usually do considerable rooting, and so prevent the formation of a tough sod. In some cases the orchard that has hogs in it might almost be classed as a tilled orchard. The difference is also largely due to the manure. The hogs receive most of their food from outside the orchard, so that there is a constant addi- tion to the plant-food in the soil. Cattle and sheep are usually fed much less.

272 BULLETIN 226.

Hogs frequently do considerable damage to the trees, particularly if the feed-yard is in the orchard. Around the place where they are fed they rub the trunks and roots, pack the soil so as to make it impervious to air, and sometimes bark the trees. It is well to remember that one good apple-tree is worth more than a hog, and that a small strip of bark removed will usually result in a decaved tree. There should always be a feed-yard outside the orchard.

Hogs or sheep do considerable good by eating the apples that fall early, and so disposing of many wornts.

None of the methods of sod treatment equal tillage in average yields.

A comparison of Table 12 with Table 10 shows the force of this statement.

CHAPTER III. FERTILIZATION.

Fertilizers used—The majority of orchards receive no commercial fertilizer or green manure, but are given a limited amount of barn- yard manure—usually much too limited. One-third receive no fer- tilizing of any kind. Sixty per cent receive barnyard manure, either alone or in combination with commercial fertilizer, green manure, etc. 3 green manure is used alone or in combination in 12 per cent ; commercial fertilizer is used alone or with other manures in 13 per cent (see Table 13).

These figures show too high a percentage receiving some kind of fertilizer. [n many cases only a little manure was applied, but the orchard was included with those receiving manures. In others the fertilization was given so long ago as to be of no consequence at present. Probably less than half the orchards receive enough to

entitle them to be properly included with those receiving fertilization.

TABLE 13.

Uskp ALONE. a ey cea, Tora. FERTILIZER. aa = alr ae SS a - = No; or-|. 17. . ; er | No. or-| Ber ||/No: Orel! yc2 er chards., No. acres.’ cent. | chards. No. acres, cent. | chards. No. acres. cent. | a = E | | = = ay Dw ae 7 | | None........... La oatrl tes gt need Pee ofalne.ce mlb ee det ieee | 154 | I101% | 33.5 Barnyard manure| 214 | 145334 | 44.3 58 | 509 15.5 | 272 | 196234 50.7 Commercial fer- | PNltzZetrs wens eee LOY =LO8-- pl eet 40 313. 9S 50 | 416 12.6 Green manure... 14 | 117% 3.5 17 | 291% 8.8 31 409 i263 Orchards receiving no fertilisation of any kind. No. orchards. | No.acres, | Per cent. — ee —e a = | — _ | NV EINVO eth Ameen er ae ees an peta ceric iecbeaieines Tali | 453 | 31.4 SOUGMEPALMOMCOUMiye << eu tide snes < cv ectlers F8 21 | 241 2.2 Noni pau OleGOlUntyaun en. ¢csesyese es =o eee 16 | 407% | 28.1

In many of the fertilized orchards the manure was used with a view to helping some crop planted in the orchard. Of course if it is applied, the apple-trees will make use of a part of it.

273

274 BULLETIN 226.

Fertilization and yield——The records of the use of barnyard manure and fertilizers do not cover a long enough period to be used in com- ‘paring crops before 1902. The average yields of fertilized orchards for the years 1902 and 1903 were 55 bushels above that of those that were unfertilized (see Table 14). ’

TABLE T4.

. . “ye J “y¢ Yield in bushels for 1902 and 1003 for fertilized and unfertilized orchards. Trees set before r88o.

Necessity for fertilization—The cultivated orchards demand much less fertilization than the untilled ones, for the tillage makes food that is in the soil available. ‘here are, however, very few soils that do not need some material added at least in the form of green manure.

Many of the less progressive growers fail to recognize the orchard as a crop that requires food as do other crops. .\ common reply to the question of the kind of manure used was, “ \Ve don't raise anything in the orchard so we do not use any manure or fertilizer,” the growth of wood, leaves, and apples not being recognized as a drain on the plant- food in the soil. But the number of those who recognize the orchard as a crop requiring food and care is rapidly increasing. The small, light- colored leaves, the very little growth, the small apples, are requests for food. The owner should answer the demand with manure or tillage, usually with both.

The amount of plant-food removed by the apple crop compared with that removed by the wheat crop.—The following tables, based on Bulletin No. 103 of this Station, show something of the demands made by the apple orchard. All the leaves were gathered from a medium-sized, mature apple-tree and were analyzed. The trunk, branches and the roots were also analyzed.*

“Cornell Bulletin 103. October, 1895. This bulletin is now out of print.

An APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York.

TABLE T5.

Plant-food in apple leaves.

275

Leaves of one | Estimated for one tree analyzed. acre of 35 trees. Pa WEEN is oi ddd Sele waded = ke era eaine ss PREVOD MDS. Ncretae scrote fe 5%.. are Shit Water aacc\.e rey ee hee preter. at TAG Ame ae MENA Sei Oa tages Soaps Motaiaweisht dry matter, i445 22 eeeck ea dk rnarelews A A eer eer eee Total weight nitrogen.............c0sccesereees go ‘ 33.6 Ibs Total weight phosphoric acid. i. 2.13.20. ee. os acy ee T2205 43 Miotaliweieht potashsesase.s so... s+e suse esse oes: Teccw. 46.2) 9°" TABLE 16. Plant-food in wood and roots. = =a = —— RSET SARE == = ae r eee ———— Wi ata ete" | tetloaied tor bag | Petmated ase analyzed. acre of s;5trees. | ware ictal WeIglit... ca cuvacies ces Piecs eeu eee LS alaneriat ee ae een! |e rts ane ete ee Total weight water............. Eo OOP cure e Mil cea tt tratunc acres |e smear Hea Total weight dry matter........ DIOS OOb he Wit ete se ata) ease seee eet Total weight nitrogen.......... 82000)" 283.15 lbs 6.29 Ibs Total weight phosphoric acid... .| 3207" LO7.S5~ 235° = Total weight potash............ | GS 264.25 ‘ toy eon

*To get the estimate of the amount required for wood and roots each year, it was

assumed that #5 of the mature tree was grown each year.

usually larger than the tree analyzed.

Grain

1 ho 6 Bre: (8 wile) wi. .0 ey ete ee

SS TLV PMN ane ches oo, Gigs dade ance, 2 cca

Water.

85.37

TABLE 17.

Composition of wheat.

Trees 45 years old are

Water. Nitrogen. ee Potash, eee 14.75% 2.36% 0.89% 0.61% 12.56 .56 +12 51 Composition of apples. Phosphoric Nitrogen, acid. Potash. 0.13% 0.01% 0.19%

270 BULLETIN 220,

TABLE 18.

Total plant-food removed in one year by wheat and by apples.

Nitrogen. | Phosphoric acid. Potash, 400 Gushels: of Apples.....47s-ssicv sakes | 19.50 lbs. | 1.50 lbs. 28.50 INGA MGR Ise ti tee oe eee ier os ta com | 33.60 ‘S| Pe sOser 46.20 \\olcts Ree en ae eter ager aC” Vas see ns me ager | 6.20%" Basie: 5.87 lteites] Sareeet See vie ee ee er | 59.30 Ibs 16.84 Ibs 80.57 20 bushels of wheat... soa .a9::a019e-0e4- 28.32 Ibs. | 10.68 lbs, 782 2,500 pounds wheat straw............. 14.00 ‘* | 3.00 “ 12575 "HOCH Gees bee aa Fat ee as 42,32 Ibs 13.68 Ibs 20.07

According to these estimates it requires, for crops of the size indicated, about four times as much potash, and more nitrogen and phosphoric acid, to grow the apples than is required to grow the wheat. In considering these tables there are several points to keep in mind. The apple roots go deeper into the ground and so have more soil from which to draw their food supply. If the ground has some kind of a crop growing on it, the leaves may be largely retained in the orchard. The amount of plant-food used by the wood is not very well known, as it is difficult to determine what an average growth is. But even the 300 bushels of apples, without any leaves or wood growth, require more potash and nearly half as much nitrogen as is required to produce the wheat and straw.

Manure may be shipped in from the cities —A few of the more pro-

gressive growers have shipped in manure from Buffalo. This costs about $28 per car, but if applied when needed it gives a very large return. Some have feared to use it on account of the danger of getting weed seed. There seems to be no trouble in subduing any weeds that come with it when it is applied to the orchard. There may be some danger of animal diseases being carried in the manure. A much larger total of manure is secured from the many smaller cities and towns, but this is usually not obtainable in very large quantities.

Manure may be profitably secured by the feeding of cattle—A few growers have fed cattle during the winter in order to secure manure. This enables them to buy their fertilizer in the form of feed. The cattle usually give a fair profit. “Phe manure obtained, added to this, makes

An Apple OrCHARD SuRVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 277

the practice quite profitable. It seems probable that more of this winter feeding will be done in the future. The expense of caring for stock in the winter is not very great. The fertilizing value of the feed is frequently over half of its cost.* |

Method of applying manure.—Manure is almost always applied in a small circle around the base of the tree. This is a serious mistake. The roots of a bearing orchard occupy all the ground. Those from one row may extend beyond the next row. The small feeding roots are naturally most numerous at some distance from the tree, much as the active twigs are found at the ends of the large branches. The manure should therefore be applied to the entire ground. If any place is not covered, let it be that near the trunk. Professor Roberts has aptly likened the application around the trunk to putting the hay under the horse's feet.

Cover-crops.—More orchards are in need of humus than are in need of the direct application of plant-food. For this reason the applica- tion of barnyard manure generally gives much better results than the use of fertilizers. This is particularly true of sod orchards. Tilled orchards usually do as well when green manure with potash and phos- phoric acid are used. On some of the stronger soils no fertilization of any kind may be needed for many years, if plenty of green manure is plowed under.

Fight per cent of the mature orchards of the county were sown to cover- crops in 1902. Buckwheat was the most common, followed by ecrim- son clover and common red clover. Rye, large clover, cow-peas, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch were also grown. Buckwheat furnishes a large amount of humus and leaves the soil in a friable condition. It is not a legume, and so cam not use nitrogen from the air. Crimson clover has generally done well, but some growers have had difficulty in getting a stand. One man has grown it every other vear for fourteen years. Common red clover has been most satisfactory when a year of tillage has been followed by a year in which the clover is cut and left on the land to be plowed under the second year. Peas and oats have given

good results in most cases.7 *For tables of the value of the fertilizing elements in various feeds, see Cornet Bulletin 154. +For a more extended discussion of orchard cover-crops, see Cornell Bulletin 108.

CHAPTER IV. PRUNING.

The former methods of pruning.—Pruning was at first greatly neg- lected. Just as the majority of orchards were formerly left to fight their way in competition with other plants, so the limbs in each tree were allowed to fight with each other. Only a few orchards have been well pruned from the time of planting. In some pruning was almost entirely neglected for years; in others it was done and is still

Fic. 48.—Years of neglect followed by too severe pruning.

done in such a manner as to do more harm than good. ‘There is a tendency among careless farmers to let the trees go for several years and then give them a “ thorough trimming” (see Fig. 48), rather than prune some every year, as the careful grower does. Perhaps one-fifth of the orchards are now well pruned, and this number is being added to each year, as the number of real fruit-growers increases. The problem of pruning among the bearing trees of Wayne county is, therefore, not that of training an ideal tree from the time it is planted; but the far more difficult problem of correcting the effects of former neglect.

How wounds heal—Intelligent pruning is based on a knowledge of

the causes of decay, and of the wav in which wounds heal.

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 279

The living and growing part of a tree is the cambium layer. This is a tissue lying upon the outside of the wood and beneath the bark. From its outside it produces bark, and from its inside it produces wood. It is this layer of young, tender cells that makes the bark “ slip’ so readily in early summer. The inner part of the tree is not active; its value to the tree is in supporting the living part. If this center part decays, the tree usually continues to grow till it breaks down (see Fig. 52).

This dead inner wood is protected by the bark and living portion so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a large limb is removed the seal is broken and the dead wood is exposed. Having no life, it cannot resist infection by germs any more than a dead log can do so. ‘The safety of the tree depends on having the wound healed over before it becomes infected. he wound heals by the growth of the cambium layer. If the wound is small it will usually be sealed up before the fungi get established; but 1f the dead stub is exposed for a long time the wood-rot fungi are almost certain to attack it and cause the trunk to decay. If the wound does then heal over, the mycelium of the fungi is established and may continue to grow within the tree.* The decay may reach into the living tissue, but its most serious cffects are in so weakening the trunk as to cause it to break down. In order to avoid the rotten trunks that are so common in the majority of the orchards, three things should be observed :

i. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is absolutely necessary.

2. When such limbs must be removed, the pruning should be so done as to favor rapid healing of the wounds.

3. Large wounds should be protected by paint till the tree can seal them.

The removal of large limbs.—The ideal way would be to have the tree so pruned from the time it is planted that there would never be oceasion for the removal of large limbs. But very many orchards were neglected so long that it may be necessary to cut out such limbs. Eighteen per cent of the orchards are still practically unpruned. In a neglected orchard some limbs may be damaged by neglect or lack of food. Others die as a result of the shade caused by dense tops, or the trees being too close together. Even in a well cared for orchard an occasional limb will be broken by the wind, or by too heavy a load

of fruit, or will die from other causes. But much of the removal of

*Cornell Bulletin 193,Shade Trees and Timber-Destroying Fungi.

280 BULLETIN 226.

large limbs is done without cause. In the orchard shown in lig. 48, the trees had too many of these as a result of neglect, but it would have been better to have thinned the tops by the removal of small branches than by cutting out the scaffold limbs. It takes more time to prune by the former method, but the time is well spent. The ulti- mate death of most trees can be traced to

the careless removal

of large limbs. The wound is too large to heal, or the cut is made in such a way that it can not heal. Wood-rot fungi get a foothold and soon the tree has a hollow trunk. The wind then breaks off the branches one by one till the tree is gone (see Figs. 5 and 54).

Stub pruning.—Much can be done

i)

to prevent the fungi and bacteria from getting a foothold. If the limb is cut close to the body of the tree, and parallel with it, the tree will be able to heal wounds of considerable size before decay sets in. The pruning should be done in such a manner that no portion of the amputated branch is left. If

a limb is cut an inch from the body the wound

Fic. 49.—Long stubs left

when pruning. These no stub were left. A stub several inches long cause the trunks to de- ; cay and finally result in broken trees.

requires much longer to heal than it would if

seldom heals over. It has no life of its own, and so must depend on material that comes from other branches to heal it; but a projecting stub is out of the line of move- ment of the sap—it is sidetracked. Instead of healing over the end of the stub, a roll of new growth is thrown up around its base where the cut should have been made.

In a little over sixteen per cent of the orchards examined bad stubs

were left, varying in length from one or two inches.to one foot,

An APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 281

There are two reasons for leaving these long stubs. One, I fear the more common one, is because it is easier to do so. but many farmers leave a long stub when a large limb must be removed because they think that the wound will be too large to heal, and by leaving the long stub they hope to keep the rot away from the tree. The rapidity with which fungi penetrate the wood after they get started refutes this practice. ~Success must come from preventing the start of decay, not from giving it a long dis- tance to travel be- fore it gets into the trunk. In one forty- acre orchard. the owner left stubs about a foot long to serve as_ ladders! His successor has gone through the onehard: and cut these off and has done what was pos- sible to prevent further decay.

In Fig. 49 is shown a tree with long stubs that will

result in its death.

Fig. 54 gives what

Fic. 50.—The decayed hole caused by wood-destroying

will be the next step. ee .

i i j fungt. (See Migs. 57 and $2.) The outside of this stub shows the seed-forming bodies (spore fruits) of the fungi; but it does not look very bad, while the inside is so decayed that it only needed a good load of fruit to break the tree. Fig. 53 is another stub that will ultimately -ause the death of the tree. The tape-measure shows how far the stick extends into the decayed hole. The decay, of course, goes much farther.

Fig. 50 shows a decayed hole that was caused by leaving a large wound

282 BULLETIN 220.

Vig. 51.—The same tree as Fig. 50, showing the extent of the decay. The tree

was about 16 inches in diameter and had only about two inches of sound

on the outside, a mere shell, The white mould is the mycelium of fungi.

¢

vood

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 283

unpainted. The hole is now nearly closed, but it is too late, as will be seen by Fig. 51, which shows the inside of the same tree. There is only a few inches of undecayed wood on the outside of the trunk. The white mould (mycelium) all through the trunk shows how badly decayed the tree is. The tree was a very thrifty one, and was apparently unaffected, but the rotted trunk was no longer strong enough to support it (lig. 52).

Paint should be used on the larger wounds.—Only a very few orchards

were seen where paint was used. Painting the wounds should become

Fic. 52.—The rotten trunk resulted in the breaking of the tree. (See Figs. 50-51.)

an accepted practice. The paint does not help to heal the wounds, nor does it hinder healing, as some have supposed. It is to prevent the wood- rot fungi from getting a foothold. It acts as a partial seal till the tree can protect the wound in its own way—by healing over the place. It has a similar effect as it has on farm machinery. It protects from weather and prevents fungi and bacteria from causing decay. The cost of painting all the wounds above two inches in diameter is not great. If this is done, and if the larger ones are repainted every year, the increased longevity of the tree will amply repay the cost. One good apple-tree will pay for

284 BULLETIN 220,

painting many wounds. Lead paint is the most satisfactory for this pur- pose, but any durable paint is probably good.

> Thinning the tops—lt the tops are so dense that air can not circulate through them it is almost impossible to spray well. The moisture remains long after every rain or dew, and so, favors all kinds of fungous erowths. The fruit will be of poor quality and poorly colored. Dense tops favor the development of insects and diseases, but not of apples. The frontispiece shows a well-pruned tree. Notice that the light shines through the top in spite of the fact that there is a large crop of fruit and excellent foliage. Contrast this with Fig. 59. But even this latter orchard is better pruned than the average.

Prining should vary with the thrift of the trees —Ilf an orchard is so treated that the leaves are small and_ the erowth very little, many more limbs should be left than in a thriftv orchard. Poor color of the fruit in tilled orchards could be im- proved to some extent if

these trees were pruned

s more openly. The tree in

ic. §3—The long stub continued. The tape shows how far the stick extends into the rotten trunk,

the frontispiece shows ideal conditions. The air and light can filter through the top and reach every leaf and every apple. If this tree were not tilled or fertilized it could have about double the number of limbs without making the tops any denser. A neglected tree would be a mere skeleton if pruned as this thrifty tree is pruned.

When is the best time to prune’?—As a result of a series of experiments in pruning at various times in the vear Professor Bailey concludes as

AN AppLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New Yorn. 285

follows: ‘ The conclusion,

and my general opinion,—in respect to the

season of pruning, so far as the healing of wounds is concerned, ts this:

-The ideal time is in spring, before growth begins (late February, March and early but

April in New York;)

more depends on the position of the wound in the tree and

Tic. 55.—The crotch which will probably cause the tree to split. One of the leaders should be removed.

Pic. 54—The long stub resulted in the broken tree.

the length of the stub than on the time of year.”* The best time to prune will gener- ally be the time when labor is least expen- sive.

flow to treat crotches—The best way to treat a crotch is never to allow one to form; but when one secures an orchard in which they are already formed he must do what is possible to correct the weakness.

In Fig. 55 is shown a young tree with a bad crotch that will be quite certain to ruin it. One of the forks should be cut off. Fig. 56 shows the trunk of an old tree similarly

pruned. Fig. 57, from the same orchard as

*The Pruning-Book, fourth edition, 1902.

286 BULLETIN 226.

lie. 56, shows two of the split trees and several vacant spaces where broken trees have been removed. Nearly one-fourth of the trees in this. seven-acre orchard are already broken down, and as many more are split. ‘There are only a few orchards in the hun- dreds examined in) which the trees were thus sys- tematically pruned to form crotehes, but in a_ large number of orchards a few trees have them.

The split trees and those that are in danger of split- ting can yet be saved by

the use of bolts. A band

put around a tree will

Fie. 56.—The result of bad crotches. The tree can be saved for further usefulness by bolting the two halves together. through it does no appre-

girdle it, but a bolt put

te Sa, ; S

—The final result of bad crotches.

= ae | a wal NI

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 287

ciable damage. If two bolts that hook into a connecting chain of suitable length are used, the work can be much more easily done. The two holes are then not necessarily in the same line. The chain also allows for variation in length. One bolt is put through one branch, the other is put nearly through the other branch, and the chain is hooked on at the proper length. The bolts dte- then drawnup. Or bolts with hooks or rings on one end may be used and_ strong wire used to fasten them together. Number of scaf- fold limbs.—In Fig. 58 is shown a tree with too many scat- fold, or frame work, limbs. The time to

avoid this is when

the tree is. yoting.

Frc. 58.—Too many scaffold limbs. Half of these should

ae ee , : ante a Fos <n pale cy was se have been pruned out when the tree was young

Some of the smaller limbs might still be

removed with safety if the wounds are kept well painted.

in Orleans county—directly from the table.

The usual method of sorting

rore careful method of sortin

o Poy

/

but

cer

slox

a

table

CHAPTER -Y,. SPRAYING.

The extent of the practice—The fact that so many growers evaporate their entire crop gives rise to a general laxity in spraying. A little over 41 per cent of the trees set before 1880 were sprayed in 1903. One-third: are seldom or never sprayed.

In 1902 most buyers of apples for evaporating paid the same price regardless of the scab fungus. This fungus does not seriously damage apples for evaporating unless it is so bad that it stunts or distorts the apple or makes it crack. (See Fig. 81.) In 1902 it was very bad in many orchards. The clean apples were generally considered to be worth more, but were bought at the same price, as one man said, “in order to keep

peace in the neighborhood This puts a premium on neglect and prob- ably accounts for the large number who do not believe in spraying and for the considerable number of those who do spray but do not use the Bordeaux mixture.

Effects of spraying on the yield and price—The damage from insects and the apple-scab in 1903 was much less than usual. But even in this year of few insects and little fungus, when most people “saw nothing to spray for,” spraying paid. The average yield of the sprayed orchards was 27 bushels more than that of the unspraved. (See table 19). This was probably due chiefly to the prevention of the large loss caused by the bud-moth and to the loss from the codlin-moth. The bud-moth did considerable damage in many orchards, but its work was not com- monly seen, or if seen, was attributed to a bad wind that made many leaves turn brown at about the time when the bud-moth caused the young shoots to die. The codlin-moth causes many apples to fall early in the season. A part of the difference may be due to other factors as the sprayed

orchards averaged a little better in other treatment.

TABLE IQ.

Yield in bushels in 1903 of sprayed and unsprayed orchards. Trees set before r88o.

No. of | No. of | Average yield orchards. | acres, | per acre. Sy DUR Taiela i Piatt cage ee Pe 66 626% 280 Wnsprayedi.....%. Does chcaa testo ~ ait ona te 107 673 253

290 BULLETIN 220.

TABLE 20.

Price per barrel of sprayed and unsprayed apples in 1903.

| | ; | No. of barrels. Average price |

per barrel.

SPEAVEU svc vans SEEN Ch eee ee eens A 8, 430 $2 02 Wis pray tle ape S25 eects 2s 4th 8 ee eae lt Aine ¢ 6, 365 1 80 | | TABLE 21. elverage price per bushel of sprayed and unsprayed apples int 1903. 7 : 2 Average price No. of bushels. per bushel. — =

PDROYEG <5 peste ea) sooew tee bees seeehese saeeee 110, 445 $o 31.8 Sprayed, dried: by orower ss ooo. en wc pantera has 035045. idee sees Vera VO" ice ate recess 2 Os een ee re 96, 345 BF 7 Uinspraved: dried by rowers. .2s..na sv Gaiese wens O4:305 jcatetenpapee sees

The average price per barrel of the sprayed apples was $2.02; of the unsprayed, $1.80. From the sprayed orchards 15 per cent of the crop was barreled; from the unsprayed, 12 per cent. Without considering the apples that were evaporated by the grower, the average price of sprayed apples was 31.8 cents per bushel; of unsprayed, 27.7 cents.

If we count the apples that were evaporated by the growers as worth 20.7 cents, the average price paid for apples by the evaporators, then the income per acre from sprayed orchards averaged $77.84; from the unsprayed, $63. (See tables 20 and 21.)

Most of the sprayed orchards were sprayed but once. Apples from many of these brought no higher prices than unsprayed ones, but some of those that were well sprayed gave so much better yields and secured so much higher prices that they were able to raise the average as shown above.

The kinds of sprays used.—Nearly one-fifth of the trees that were sprayed received applications of arsenical poison sprays only. The smaller orchards were quite commonly so treated. This one-fifth of the area included one-third of the number of sprayed orchards. In 21 orchards Paris green and water were used without any other materials. (See table 22.) In view of this and of the exceptionally favorable vear the showing

made by such spraving as was done is satisfactory.

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 291

Arsenic is coming to be quite commonly used instead of Paris green, particularly in the larger. orchards. It stays in suspension better than Paris green and is somewhat cheaper. Arsenic was used in 58 per cent of the area and in 36 per cent of the number of sprayed orchards.

TABLE 22.

Spraying in 1903. Trees set before r88o.

| WacLwortt. | REMAINDER Or Country. | ENTIRE County. |_ | eat ie av a | l | | No. or-| _| Per | No. or- | Per | No. or-} yo acres.| Pet chards. | No acres.| ot No. or | Ne: acres. cent, chards. Nolaeres. cent. ni | | | : | SPLAVEdis cscans 3 heres | 144) 741 | 50! 371} 698% | 35 I8I | 1439% | 41 Sometimes sprayed — | | | HOU (1 TOSS 126 487% | 33 35 | 406% |.20| 161 | 893% | 26 Seldom or neverspray’d| 64 | 257% | 18 55 | 882% | 45 119 IT40 33 Trees set since 1879.

Sprayed. ons.es.. vies. | 18 83 | 42 3| 80 19 | 21 163) | | j|e26 Winsprayed ..2. 02.24.65. 40 112% | 58 | 19 343 SI 50 | 455% | 74 Poison used.

PtaeilG atin ats bit | 25 | 170 4t| 119 | 458% | 69 | 44 | 629% | 58 Panis: OTeeti ws. cso. 82 ss | 58] 241 | 50] 19| 209% | 31 77,| 450% | 42 Bordeaux mixture used.

Porson only... co. 64 S41. aq ree | sso. | 8 ya, eon 7 4.) ynOG! /)) Poison and Bordeaux...) 50) 289 | 70! 30) 622 xe) 80 | gil 82

Six orchards were sprayed with lime, salt and sulfur for the San José scale. One of these did not have any of the scale within about ten miles, but the owner was afraid it might come. A few young orchards were sprayed with kerosene emulsion for aphids.

Many of the owners of these small orchards have used Bordeaux mix- ture at some time or other, and because one careless application did not keep the apples entirely free from fungus have concluded that the copper sulfate was of no value. Some even cite the effects of spraving with Paris green and lime as evidence that spraying does not affect the fungus. The failure of Paris green to kill the aphids, which were quite bad in 1903, is also cited to show the futility of spraying. Of course those who conduct apple-growing on a good business basis are not among fuese*

*There are three general classes of sprays: 1. Poisons. 2. Sprays that kill insects by contact. 3. Fungicides.

The insects that chew are the only orchard enemies that we can expect to kill with Paris green, arsenic or other poisons of this nature. The lice, San José scale

292 BULLETIN 226.

When is the best time to spray?-—The number of sprayings and the time to give them must be determined by the season and the objects for which a man is spraying. But many of the enemies, like the apple-scab, must be treated before they appear. The time of attack by this fungus varies to some extent in different years. (See page 335 for a discussion of the fungus.) In the 564 orchards examined in Orleans county in 1904 it was found that those apples that were not sprayed immediately after blossoming were invariably scabby, regardless of the earlier and later sprayings. To keep the fruit in the best condition more sprayings were needed, but this was by far the most important application. If there is much rain during the blossoming period and for two to three weeks following more sprayings will, of course, be necessary than in a dry season. No hard and fast rules can be given, but unless some special enemy threatens the crop the best times will be about as follows:

If three sprayings are given, one just before blossoming, one timinedi- ately after blossoming, and one from ten to fourteen days later, will gen- erally give the best results. If two are given, omit the first or third. The second and third are the important ones for the codlin-moth. If only one spraying is given it will usually do the most good if applied immediately after blossoming. For the bud-moth and case-bearer a spraying is needed just as the leaf buds begin to open.

Do not expect too much from one spraying. If you give three thorough applications you will, under ordinary conditions, have a right to expect clean fruit.

Some years, as in 1903, good fruit is grown without spraying ; but these years can not be foretold. If we wait till the fungus shows, it is too late to spray. The most successful men spray every year. They consider spraying as insurance. They spray even if there is no crop, for they

and other insects that suck their food, are not hurt by poisons for the very simple reason that they can not eat poison. We would not expect to kill a mosquito by putting poison on the hand and letting him suck the blood from under it—his food, the blood, is not poisoned. These insects feed in a similar manner. They suck the juices from the plant and do not take any material from the surface. They must be killed by kerosene; whale oil soap; lime, salt and sulfur, or by some other spray that kills by contact. Only those which are hit by the spray are killed.

The various fungi are plants. We might call them weeds that have chosen to grow on the apple rather than on the ground. They can not eat Paris green nor are they killed by kerosene and such sprays. For them some fungicide, as Bordeaux mixture, must be used,

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 293

consider that good, clean foliage is necessary in order to form the next year’s fruit-buds and in order to store up food for the next year’s crop,

Winter treatment for apple-scab.—Quite a number of farmers are con-

sidering the advisability of spraying for the scab before the buds open. This treatment will not take the place of later applications. If one gives it he should do so with the understanding that it is in addition to the later sprayings, and not a substitute for them. “When these are made the winter treatment does not bring sufficient additional benefit to justify the additional expense of making it against the scab alone, but it may pay when directed also against the canker disease and combined with some application which must be made against insects such as case-bearers or bud-moth.

“It is known that the scab lives during the winter on the fallen leaves and in the spring produces spores by means of which it spreads to the new foliage. Probably it may exist during winter to some extent on the bark of young twigs also. Granting that this is the case and that a large part of the fungus on the tree is killed by winter treatment, which is improbable, it 1s evident that when the new foliage appears it must be covered with some fungicide to protect it from the spores produced on ficstdilen leaves, °F - #

Method of applying the spray.—In order to do effective spraying there must be plenty of power back of the pump. Good work is sometimes done with hand pumps, but the tops of large trees are not often well sprayed, nor is the work usually as well done with these machines as when power sprayers are used. The power sprayer is rapidly displacing the hand pump.

Many orchardists go through the orchard twice for each spraying— always spraying with the wind. The first time through may be done at the most convenient opportunity. For the second wait till the wind has reversed. Three sprayings therefore require six trips through the orchard. This method secures thorough spraying for each side of the tree.

Russeting of the fruit—A sound and perfect fruit sometimes shows areas where the skin is reddish brown and rough. This is commonly attributed to too strong a spray. It is frequently caused in that way, but in 1903 and 1904 apples in many unsprayed orchards were russeted. It is caused by any irritation of the skin of the fruit. This is caused by ‘too strong a spray, by late frosts that hurt the skin of the young apple,

*Bulletin 170, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.

294 BULLETIN 226.

or by anything else that irritates the skin. To prevent injury from the Bordeaux mixture plenty of lime must be used. Four pounds of blue vitriol to fifty gallons of water is sufficient for the later sprayings. This lessens the danger of russeting and seems to be effective in preventing the scab fungus. Six pounds to fifty gallons of water are ordinarily used for the first spraying.

Damage to foliage from spraying.—The foliage is sometimes burnt by too strong a spray. This is particularly likely to occur in rainy weather. [lowever, most of the spots on the leaves that are attributed to the spray are not due to the spray, but to fungi. (See page 340.)

Professor G. \W. Cavanaugh gives the following suggestions about spraying in rainy weather:

“In the preparation of Bordeaux mixture, which is made from a solu- tion of blue vitriol and lime, there is a definite chemical union brought about between the copper of the vitriol and the lime. In order that this union may occur, the lime must be in a water-slaked condition, chemically known as calcium hydroxide. Should the lime be air-slaked, i. e. in the form of carbonate of lime, this chemical union with the copper does not take place. The action of the carbonic acid of the air on water-slaked lime is to change the lime to the air-slaked form.

“The chemical union between the lime and the copper in the Bordeaux muxture is not a very stable one. In fact, it is so weak that the carbonic acid of the air can, under certain conditions, break up the union and change even that lime which was combined with the copper into air- slaked lime. This, of necessity, frees the copper and puts it in a condi- tion similar to that where an insufficient amount of lime is used in the orignal mixture. This action of the carbonic acid of the air is facilitated if the mixture remains moist for a considerable time on the foliage. The result of this is a burning of the leaves by the free copper sulfate. When the mixture dries on the trees this action of the gas is so much retarded that no injurious results have ever been noticed. It therefore seems a Wise precaution, during a wet season at least, to use more lime than the

formula ordinarily calls for.”

CHAPTER VI. RENOVATING AN APPLE ORCHARD IN WESTERN NEW YorK. BY CHRISTIAN BUES.

a

With the increase of our knowledge of the * how ” of apple-production comes naturally a greater interest in the apple business. Out of a few apple-trees around the house has grown the commercial orchard. The manager of a large orchard enters the open market. He learns the value of business methods. He looks for opportunities in the business of apple- production. To plant young trees and nurse them into bearing age is a long-term investment. It should be profitable ultimately. But how shall he find an outlet for his energies while his trees are growing; how shall he improve his trade; in short, where is the immediate opportunity for business ?

There are thousands of acres of apple orchards of bearing age in Western New York which are not giving the revenue that they ought to give. Many of these can be bought at a reasonable price. If the trees are in a fairly good state of health the renovation of such orchards may be profitable. We have heard a great deal during the last few years about this feature of fruit-raising. What are the actual facts? A concrete example will illustrate better than any amount of theory.

In 1896 Mr. George Pettit bought a “run down” farm at Kenyon- ville, Orleans county, N. Y. The farm was neglected. Therefore the price paid was not high. Fifty-four acres were bought for $2,200. On the farm was an apple orchard of eleven acres, two acres of which had been drowned out, literally killed by standing water, when an outlet could be found not more than fifty yards away into the steep gorge of Oak Orchard creek. This left nine acres of orchard with which to work. The trees had been planted in the spring of 1864, i. e. they were thirty-two years old and should have been just entering into their prime of production.

The soil on which this orchard stands is Miami silt loam. (See page 317.) On the remaining nine acres the drainage was not perfect. Because of lack of care the trees were older than their actual age would indicate. Pruning and feeding had been sadly neglected, and canker was rapidly unfitting many limbs for the bearing of a crop. Mr. Pettit tells me that it was in about as bad a state as regards care as it could possibly be.

295

206 BULLETIN 226.

The problem of renovation was undertaken with vigor. The water was drained off, the land was plowed, and thus the soil brought into such a condition that the plant-food would be available. The trees were freed of dead wood, the worst canker-diseased limbs removed, and the whole was disinfected by the liberal use of Bordeaux mixture and arsenic. Plant-food was supplied to produce the most essential crop—new wood. The following tabulates the cultural method: :

1896. Orchard was in sod; the grass was mowed.

1897. Orchard was plowed and beans were grown.

1898. Orchard was manured and beans grown again, followed by erim- son clover,

1899. Orchard was manured and crimson clover plowed under.

1900-1904. Orchard has been manured every year and buckwheat 1s grown, to be rolled down toward ripening time of the fruit.

During the last three years every tree in the orchard received each year one-quarter of a load of manure, to which was added in 1904 for each tree 12 pounds of a good commercial fertilizer containing 8 per cent potash and 10 per cent phosphoric acid.

Spraying has always been faithfully done, crop or no crop; for Mr. Pettit knows that he must have a healthy vigorous tree before he can obtain a profitable crop. Here is the spraying program of the season of 1904:

First spray: When blossom buds began to swell.

Second spray: As soon as the blossoms dropped.

Third spray: About two weeks after second spray.

Fourth spray: A partial spray July 25. This had no apparent effect.

The spray used was Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, slightly decreasing the amount of blue vitriol with each successive spraying. “rejuvenated” orchard, for hardly

This orchard may well be called a any of the old tree-tops exist now. The Kings, Greenings and Russets have grown entirely new tops in the course of the eight years during which Mr. Pettit has handled the trees, and the Baldwins are doing’ so, although at a slower rate. I remember one particular Spitzenburg tree which tells the story of many hardships. By continued spraying and generous feeding the many old cankers are nearly overgrown by new wood, and a new top has been produced which looks vigorous and healthy and ready to do business for many years to come.

Now if we want to renovate orchards for business, how does the account of this orchard balance? Is it worth while to borrow money in order to invest 1t in orchard renovation? Mr. Pettit kindly placed at my

AN APPLE ORCHARD SuRVEY OF WayNE County, New York. 297

disposal an itemized account for the season of 1904. The price charged for team and machinery is large enough to allow for “ wear and tear.” To the debit should be added interest on capital invested. [Every hour of work done in the orchard by the proprietor or by his men has been charged to it.

Apple orchard. Apple orchard, 1904. Debit. 1904. Credit. June To 8 days’ hauling and By 1,765 barrels of apples, No. 1, at spreading manure, at EO arch ciar sitcia Pe ei ay ate my rane a ese ais $2,647 50 Mit 5 OF is altemerteiferau custers arele) Fs $12 00 By 75 barrels of apples, No. 2, To 3 days’ teams for haul- BO Rr Cys ated sere 6 Aearni te pe eee 75 00 APO Ab POs ce rave.n see yenene: ase 6 00 — To 80 loads of manure, Fah “a Poa eriey Gee RO Ee 120 00 To 1% tons commercial fertilizer, at $20....... 30 00 To 2 days’ pruning, at $2. 4 00 To 3 days’ hauling brush. 5 00 To 6 days’ work, spraying, 3 men and team, at $7. 42 00 To 1 day dragging with 3 GGSES: care atetsiste leis s ats'e are 4 00 To 1 day dragging with 2 HOTSES© sigapassares owes a 3.2 3 00 To 2 days’ spreading fer- LUGZOnS arenas «cee a tcioe, ae 4 00 To 1 day dragging with 3 DOESES Mn acer ctebekeus cut aralsia 4 00 To 1 day hoeing around AECESS” ig ies etaiele wie a7 are ekgoeuate I 50 To 1 day with team...... 3 00 To 1: day cleaning out Cab Xo} ak 3\-4 Para a gruenuaies are ae I 50 To 1% days’ cultivating, ila, DA aneiotocer ote Greve a eters 6 00 June 20. To 3% days’ spraying, at Vie Aaa ta tclan at cree Tes 24 50 To 1 day getting material. 3 00 To 30 lbs. Paris green, at TS Cla a Oe braetnds islaiaie, cisriga ni « 5 40 To 400 Ibs. blue vitriol, at OAR ne tases eid eaa\elane eieks far te 23 00 To 4 barrels of lime, at BLISS { Sia sais) aessats etersyce see as 5 00 To « pair of pruning SHEATS! torece sane ele arouse wand, 6 2 00 July 6. To 1 day of dragging.... 3 00 To % -day sowing buck- wheat ..ccccessenccces I 00 \ = \ 25. To spraying 3 hours, at \ 7 OG eoietsipsr airaviere: Sharaner ier veidac-est 2 10 a To spraying mixture..... 70 \ To 7 bushels buckwheat SECC., aby SGec esses oles ees, Aug. 13. To 4 hours’ breaking buck- RAVING AE, absahe ais suetsiels, cis.e-sce 1 60 16. To dragging down buck- wheat, 1 horse......... 2 00 17. To dragging down _ buck- Wheat, 1) NOS. cee c0 6s 2 00 18. To propping trees, 2 men eMCNtOArn ete erate en dst we 3 00 27. To propping trees, 2 men Blo MAYS. ways ace etese i des 10 00 To 1,840 empty barrels, at 1c] eRe OR eon nt ate 662 40 To harvesting 1,840 bar- rels of fruit and hauling to the railroad, at 25c... 460 00 BOLOHCO aieis iso ¥4¥ 0% «1505: 6,5 1,260 55 $2,722 50 $2,722 50

Thus our account for this year gives a net profit above expenses of $1,260.55. To do justice to the orchard it is fair to state that at the date

208 BULLETIN 226,

when the figures were received there remained about 1,300 bushels of apples in the orchard which might have been sold as evaporating stock had not the evaporators been tilled to their utmost capacity.

How do the crops taken from the orchard compare with the original investment? It is not possible to give these figures net, as an itemized expense account is not available. The gross returns from the orchard are:

mee Ee es as hig coe eek hob ee ete ee $250 00 LOR a oi tk eh evens 1. Ca Ve ae re eee ee I2 00 Leia A Sia OUR eed Oe os eee ae eS cee ee ae 800. 00 Gs ee ee ee Perr: rT eee oe 200 0O RMB eee OW a vena s Kp a4 de eine ee RE ee 1,200 00 OA toi ok ana song shod avee fae ele eee ee 300 00 MONS Py ati oe ty ct see PETRA ee ee eee 2,000 00 foe, a ee oe eer ir ee rey ery et 1,400 00 OST Stee a nietet de 864 here bane acth ees eee 2,722 "55

It will be seen that there is a gradual general increase in the amount of the crop. Naturally there exists a corresponding increase in the cost of production and marketing.

In a considerable percentage of New York orchards the renovating process has begun. It can not be done according to a fixed schedule. Conditions in one orchard are not often the same as in another. How- ever, the experiences of other men and close observation will soon lead one in the right direction. Two things are most needed. The first is the consideration of the orchard as a business proposition, with which we enter into an account and from which we want to exact a fair profit. We may have to wait a few years for the returns, but we must look for ultimate profits. The usual experience is that vigorously renovated orchards begin to give fair returns in about three vears, but this depends on the condition of the trees and the manner of treatment. The second unportant factor is: the man who takes charge of the orchard should know and love an apple-tree. Ele should be able to put himself into its position and to realize the various influences which this or that line of treatment would have upon a living organism. Only then can he under- stand such things as why a soil needs draining and why parasites should be kept off. It is not so much any particular kind of soil that produces the apple, or any special brand of fertilizer, or any individual spraying mixture. The essential thing is the crop of thought raised in the well-cultivated mind of a nature-loving man.

CHAPTER VII. NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE AND DISTANCE BETWEEN, TREES.

The trees are planted too close together.—One of the greatest enemies of the apple orchard in Wayne county, as in most other apple-growing regions, is the apple-tree. When the greater part of the orchards were planted, about forty years ago, there was a universal tendency to plant too closely. On 43 per cent of the area planted before 1880 the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less; 82 per cent are 35 x 35 feet or less. Only 18 per cent are over 35 x 35 feet; and a part of these were planted more closely but have been thinned. (See table 23.)

TABLE 23.

Distance between trees.

Average number of trees per acre ‘ Average distance apart................ ee. 31.6

Ss a > OV aw ony) bo bo

A comparison with the recent plantings shows that many growers have learned not to plant so closely. Nearly two-thirds of the area set since 1879 has the trees 35 x 35 feet or over, the average distance being 36.2 feet or 33.2 trees per acre, as compared with a distance of 31.6 feet and 43.6 trees for the older orchards. Some growers have not yet learned the lesson, and need to have their attention called to it. Forty by forty feet is close enough for nearly all varieties. The Duchess, Wealthy and a few other varieties might perhaps be planted a little closer. Mature Baldwin and Greening trees should be at least 40 x 40 feet apart.

= 299

300 BULLETIN 226.

About one-fourth of the orchards in Walworth township were planted on the quincunx system with the rows 20 feet apart and the trees 40 feet apart in the row. This makes the trees in squares 28.4 x 28.4 feet, cornerwise of the field. Some nurserymen recommended this system with the idea of removing every other row, so as to leave the trees 40 x 40 feet. A few growers did this before much damage had been done by crowding, and may have secured enough fruit from the extra trees to pay for the increased labor which these trees necessitated.

Outside of Walworth this system was much less used, but the trees averaged almost the same distance apart. Rather than blame the nursery- men who recommended the thinning system, as some have done, we should give them credit for being better informed than most persons of that time, for they recognized that mature trees would need to be 40 x 40 feet. Other persons planted equally close without having any idea that a part would need to be cut out.

This system may be all right if carried out, but it is certainly not to be recommended to the general public. Few people have the courage to cut down good, thrifty trees. If they do thin them it is usually not done

until the trees have been greatly damaged—all the lower limbs killed. It will be better for most persons to leave out half the trees and raise crops in the orchard for a few more years, or plant some short-lived fruit like peach-trees, that will die before the apple-trees need the room.

Effect of close planting on yield and health—The more trees per acre the less the yield. The average yield for four years of orchards where the trees are not over 30 X 30 feet apart is 186 bushels; for those over 30 x 30 feet but not over 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels; for those over 35 x 35 feet, 229 bushels. (See table 24.)

The question is still more important than these figures indicate. In many orchards the trees are being ruined because they are so close together. In Orleans county more growers have removed half the trees, but few in Wayne county have yet done so, and more attention needs to be given to the question. Farmers usually fail to notice what is hap- pening until the trees have been greatly damaged. The decrease in yield does not call attention to the trouble till it is too late. When the tops . begin to meet so as to shut out the light from the lower limbs it is time to cut out half the trees. (See Fig. 59.) If this is not done the lower limbs first bear inferior fruit, then no fruit, and finally die. The changes take place so gradually that the owner usually fails to realize what is

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 301

TABLE 24.

Distance apart and yield in bushels. Trees set be pee 1880.

WaLwortTH. REMAINDER OF County, EnTIRE County, DISTANCE APART. . No. or-| 4 aye No. or-| acy, ahaa No. or- eos Aver- chards.| **¢T°S- cic’ chards, | “*S°°S: erotd chards,| “°T°S- acid. 1900. Not over 30x30 feet ... 78 | 285%| 282 22 | 305%4|. 231 100 | 59034} 256 BIx3l to 35x35 feet... 32 | 140%] 3890 18 | 217%| 264 50 | 358 314 36x36 to 40x40 feet..... 18 |- 93 B32 6 | 80%} 224 2 173%4| 282 1QOI. Not over 30x30 feet.... 83 | 310% 38 23 | 334% 30 106 | 644% 34 BIOeRT tO 85 Xs5 Teel wen, 41 | 206 60 21 | 255% 83 62 | 461 75 36x36 to 40x40 feet .... 33 | 192 2 8 | 100%| 81 4I 292%| 88 1902. | Not over 30x30 feet....} 154 | 556%] 229 44 | 604%| 212 198 | 116034] 220 31x31 to 35x35 feet .... 77 | 380%4| 249 34 | 682%| 212 Itr | 1063 226 36x36 to 40x40 feet .... 50 | 338%] 256 II | 115%| 220 61 454 249 1903. Not over 30x30 feet.... 65 | 274%| 252 23 | 34234) 215 88 | 61634 32 31x31 to 35x35 feet .... 20) 137 309 I2 | 112%] 224 51 24914| 271 36x36 to 4ox4o feet .... 27 | 254%] 302 5 | 74%| 281 2]| 329 296 Four-year average: Not over 20% .30 Leet. 6.4: cn caec acc eeases vs fe Sees. 186 bushels Bieri tO esses soy LCGla ware creer Naot hace Seep eeas,, < 222 ath toLAg * dO eet nse eye sre eetee css hth Meh te ous od 229

It might seem that the closer plantings would include many old trees, but the change in the distance apart has been made largely since 1880.

happening till some year he finds that instead of an orchard of well- rounded apple-trees he has a lot of forest trees with a bouquet of leaves at the top.

In the end the bearing surface becomes the nearly level surface on the tops of the trees. This is a very small surface when compared with a succession of well-rounded tops. (See frontispiece.) If trees are 30 X 30 feet and are left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs, the bearing surface approaches the level surface on the top of the trees. Each tree approaches goo square feet of exposure to sunlight, or bearing surface ; or two trees approach 1,800 square feet. This is what was done in the orchard shown in Fig. 60. The owner of this orchard started to cut out half the trees about ten years ago. He cut down one tree, but it seemed to make such a big hole that he decided to prune them instead. The

20.

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AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 303

figure shows the result. Suppose half of the trees had been cut out at the proper time, they would then be 42.4 x 42.4 feet. This was done by Mr. Albert Woods in the orchard shown in Fig. 61. These trees average about 32 feet high and have a spread of about 4o feet. The area of the surface of a well-rounded tree 32 feet high and having a spread of 40 feet is about 4,000 square feet. Trees of this size still lack 2.4 feet of meeting, and 30 per cent of the surface of the ground is ex- posed to light—none too much. In other words. they are a reasonable distance apart, but the one tree has at least twice as much bearing sur- face as the two trees in the former orchard. This calculation as- sumes* the tree to have a regular form and is, of course, hypothetical, but it clearly indicates that there are two reasons why trees that are planted too closely do

not bear as much as

do those that have Tlic. 60.—A poor system of pruning. The best bearing wood removed and the trees almost ruined rather than

more room: (1) They ; “ . ) y cut out half of them. (Compare with Fig. 61.)

are not as_ healthy. (2) They do not have as much bearing surface.

Trees that are too close together furnish favorable conditions for fungi and insects; they are hard to spray; the apples are more difficult to pick and are of poorer color and quality. Probably the most serious result is an indirect effect of the death of the lower limbs. Trees are left until the large lower limbs die for want of light. These are then removed and the wounds are too large to heal. In time they cause the trunk to decay. (See Fig. 62.)

304

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(‘09 °51,] oF aurysuns 40f Kjiunjaoddo uv aes pup usanrjaq Surysoar SADIN UIIJANOJ PIBOUlas JAINA $9d4) IY} Jo JV ]Y—T109 za) |

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE CouNty, NEw YorRK. 305

Top-grafting or pruning every other row.—Some men have top-grafted half of the trees a few years before cutting them out. lost of those who have tried this would not do so again. It is some expense to do the grafting, and by the time the grafts are ready to bear well it is about time to cut the trees down. Some have cut back the tops of the trees to be removed, leaving the center part to bear a few years before remov- ing the tree. This seems to have paid in some cases, but has not always been satisfactory. Too much must not be expected of any such devices, for they. do not relieve the condition under ground. ‘The roots interfere before the tops do. When the tops begin to interfere it is high time to remove half the trees.

How to thin.—lf the trees are planted in squares the best way to thin is to cut out every other tree in each row. This is done by cutting out every other row diagonally. It leaves the trees in squares cornerwise of the field. (See Fig. 63.)

It is interesting to note what removing half the trees

would mean. Persons some-

times think that doing so in

Fic. 62.—The large lower branches die because the trees are too close. The limbs are then _ feet would leave the remainder removed. and the next stage is a decayed

an orchard that 1s 25 x 25

trunk. Notice the holes in the second tree

50 x 50 feet. As a matter o ners

fact they would be in squares of 35.3 x 35.3 feet, when viewed from the corners of the field; 1f 30 x 30 feet, and half removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 x 42.4 feet; if 33 x 33 feet, and half removed, they would be 46.7 x 46.7 feet. None of these distances is too great for large, mature trees. If 35 x 35 feet, and half removed, they would be 49.5 x 49.5 feet. Large Baldwin trees can make good use of this much room.

One of the problems to be met in thinning is that, if every other tree is

removed regularly, there will be some places where the tree to be cut out

300 BULLETIN 226.

is better than the one to be left; or it may occur that the one which should be left is missing. Will it pay to leave a tree that would otherwise be removed if it comes next to a vacant place? This question must be

— LEGEND — SL Trees Removed BiB Trees Left Standing m Trees Missing

Fig. 63.—Diagrain showing half the trees removed. The dotted lines show that the trees remaming are in squares cornerwise of the field.

answered as each case arises, but it 1s well to remember that if the tree is left it will damage one side of three other trees.

Before cutting out the trees it will pay to make a map of the orchard and locate the vacant spaces and poor trees, and so determine which way

of cutting will include the greatest number of these. In Fig. 63 the rows

ee

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw YorRK. 307

bb, dd, ff, etc., or the rows cc, ee, gg, ete., may be removed. Sometimes it will make a difference of several trees which is done. Suppose that the trees marked i are poor trees or missing; then by removing rows bb, dd, etc., five of these will be included. If the other set of rows are removed only two will be included, a gain of three trees by the former method—enough to much more than pay for the trouble of making the map.

It requires courage to go into a fine apple orchard, one that has been watched over for vears, and cut out good, healthy trees. But in many orchards the time has come when a choice must be made between two poor trees or one good one. If one has definitely made up his mind that his trees are crowding, perhaps the best way to thin them is to do as the owner of a fine Baldwin orchard of twenty acres did. He decided which rows should be removed. Then, to be sure that he would not repent and have some of the trees left, he went away on a two weeks’ visit while the boys did the work.

CHAPTER VIII, 'AGE OF THE ORCHARDS.

Date of planting. —Few of the old orchards are now owned by the men who set them, or even by the descendants of these men. It is, therefore, difficult to get the exact age in all cases, but the reports are probably accurate enough to give reliable conclusions.

Most of the trees set before 1850 were for the purpose of supplying the family wants. About this time growers began to set commercial orchards. The majority were set between t&860 and 1875. The number planted decreased till 1895. Since then there has been a gradual increase. (See table 25.)

The young orchards are nearly all in the north part of the county. Very few trees have been set in the south part during the last twenty-five years. (Some discussion of the reason for this will be found on page 259.)

TABLE 25.

Number of acres planted during each five-year period. The table includes only those orchards that are still living. Some of the earlier plantings have disap- peared,

DATE OF PLANTING. No. of orchards, No, of acres. Percent.

Before 1840... nae eee

18 | 73 | 2 WeAO=46 (TO YEATES) sends faves | 33 16714 | 4% TOAGHEA traces Me calles ayy ed's G4 oo 2 167 4% TSU CReW eN wi catany te We wi 1.9 kin ee a ox att 45 298 12 8 1860-04... cee eee 153 8104 22 LOOGSOOl T4 « psaiinae hay ean) gI ZF 19 ikoyi tr; CPS ee eee Py eee 67 450 12 TO Tar 4.8 As one pk kee oe ees 43 | 38014 | 10 TEENA s.1a wae aaa mie SOR Ree ee 22 104 | 5 POM cas (avs syn sd asuneohesas 12 71% | 2 TRO iii otis ieee} cs Bide tenes 19 | 54 | 1% 1895-1903 (8 years)........0...05. 47 Evi | 10

|

Yield at different ages——The fact that apples are the chief source of income for so many farmers, and that practically every one considers them to be a paying crop, would seem to raise the question of why more orchards are not planted. The great deterrent to such planting is the long time that one must wait for returns. With the usual treatment of

308

a

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 309

Baldwin and Greening trees they do not begin to be profitable for nearly twenty years. A much less profitable crop that gives returns the first year can therefore compete with apples.

If well cared for, the trees will usually pay sooner. But the very fact that it is so long before a revenue is secured causes the owner to neglect ‘the trees, so that the normal period is increased. The young orchard usually takes its place as a field in the crop rotation, and is therefore in sod or small grain half the time. One frequently sees young orchards in wheat-fields or hay-fields. ‘The short growth, knotty bodies and yellow leaves tell the story of shallow roots, dry soil, borers, and all the ills which every farmer who follows such methods deserves to have

“a Cle SSeS cheer ARC

i ALVYORTH Or OR NT Y|

Fic. 64.—Diagram showing the yield in bushels at different ages.

fastened to his trees.”"* Grain and hay should never be grown in a young orchard. The first thing to grow is an apple-tree. ‘Tilled crops are the only ones that can be grown without damaging the trees and lengthening the period before they are ready to bear. (See Figs. 41, 42 and 43.)

Many of the orchards now being set are composed of Ben Davis, Hubbardston, Duchess and other early-bearing varieties, but Baldwin and Greening still hold a place.

*Cornell Bulletin 72.

310 BULLETIN 220.

It is a long time to wait for Baldwins and Greenings to begin to bear, but they make up for this delay by continuing to be profitable for many years. The life of an apple-tree has commonly been spoken of as about forty to fifty years, but the maximum yield in Wayne county is not reached till forty-four years from the time of planting. (See table 26 and lig. 64.) After this there is a gradual decrease. Several orchards set before 1820 are still profitable. With the better care that trees are now receiv- ing, their age of max- imum yield will

It is probable that the returns for good treatment will be even more marked in pro- longing the life of the orchard than in in- creasing the annual yield. (See Fig. 65.) There are very few 45-year-old trees that have not seen some very rough treatment. They have gone a

number of years with-

out any fertilization

Fic. 65.—Ninety-six years old and still young. This OF tillage. The canker- orchard contains about 145 of the original 270 trees worm has feasted on set 96 years ago. Orchard of J. A. Kuck, Kuckville,

them; cattle have Orleans county. damaged them. They have gone years without pruning, or, worse, have had large limbs cut off in such a way that the wounds can not heal. Some orchards of this age are composed of sound, thrifty trees that give promise of an increased yield for some years to come. Will it pay to plant young orchards?—From the ages at which the yields begin to decrease it would seem that in about twenty years a large

doubtless be increased.

ee a eT

AN APPLE ORCHARD SuRVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 311

part of the present orchards would cease to be profitable. It must be remembered that table 26 includes only those orchards that have survived. Many orchards set sixty-five years ago have entirely disappeared.

TABLE 26.

Age and yield per acre in bushels.

1900. 1QOr. DATE OF PLANTING. | : Sa : ——- - | pees No. acres. Yield. | aa | No. acres, Yield. | i | ards. | a SSE es = Before 1840........... 4 10 215 Rea 24% 83 1840-49............... I 10 200 © 6 37 38 1850-54........... 12 43 245 | 13 | 47 34 TOSS =5OM ees oe scieasals | 23 368 | 17 | 8434 67 MSOQSOAS «cs See da seks a 54 27834 347 | 63 360! 57 TOO5—O0ec cose ew wae oe: 41 306 203 44 | 405 55 MoO let as nn mayen: 26 | 238 | 219 34 | 2784 61 ited /st—70 aa meee ee meet ios 814 255 | 15 101 64 POSOA Me oaiais nde eed) 9 | 67 | 164 9 | 690 6 1885-89. ..-...-0.0-005- 1 5 8o I 5 0 1890-95.....--.- 4 18 50 4 14 30 TABLE 26—Concluded. 1902 1903. yer DATE OF mee ae PLANTING. | ; Reak No. No. Yield. | No. | Now vieta, ae Yield orchards. | acres. | orchards. | acres. age. | eee oe : —— eee —— Before 1840...... 4 60 175 1% | 210 64 | I71 1840-49.......... iG 93% 186 3 18 : 267 | 50 17 TESO=54 152s hc | 38 154 220 13 4834 22 49 | 181 1855-50.......... | 34 255% 281 ie 164% 312 44 257 1860-04.......... | If5 61234 232 54 284% 236 30 218 1865-69.......... 74 652 212 25 27434 238 34 200 DO7ZO—74 2 aoe oe oes | oT 380% 222 23 | 211% 261 | 29 IgI 1875-79.......... 25 138% 204 II | 4534 286 | 2 202 TOGO=O4 |= 6 case ees ) 120 133 7. 47% 155 | 19 Gs T885-89........-. 6 26 2 I 10 140 | 14 | 66 T890-95........-- Io | 217% 29 I 10 100 | 9 | 54

The tabulation for each division of the county gives the maximum yield at this same age—44 years.

aia BULLETIN 226.

It is difficult to tell just how much effect the better care will have in pro- longing the life of the trees, but it is quite certain that the well-cared-for orchards will continue to pay much longer than the average. But over half the orchards are not well cared for, and it is perfectly reasonable to suppose that many of these neglected ones will be gone in twenty years. The advisability of planting more orchards to take the place of these old ones is therefore worth considering. More immediate profit would come from the rejuvenation of the old orchard.

CHAPTER IX. SoILs AND Sort PROBLEMS. Topography.

Topographical regions —Wayne county is divided into two distinct topographical regions: a very hilly or drumlin region, and a region of gently rolling land; but each of these regions has a subdivision, so that we have four divisions (see Fig. 66) :

(t) A drumlin area.

(2) A region where the drumlins were once wholly or par- tially submerged.

(3) A gently rolling glaciated area.

(4) An area of roll- ing land that was formerly the old lake bed.

The elevations

above sea level vary from 246 feet, the Fic. 66—Topographical regions. J. Drumlin area. II. Region where the drumlins were once wholly or partially covered by the lake. III. Gently rolling 670 feet, the top of glaciated area. IV. Old lake bed.

the highest hill.

level of the lake, to

During the glacial period the lake level was about 440 feet above sea level, or about the height of the “ ridge’. This ridge was a sand-bar or lake shore line. The present sand-bar running across Sodus Bay probably appears somewhat as the ridge appeared during this period. (See Fig. 141.) This ridge is more or less continuous from Sodus Bay to Buffalo. It is a gravel formation ten to thirtv feet high and about four rods wide on top. It makes a natural roadway and has always been used for that purpose. The Rochester and Sodus Bay trolley line, built on this nature- graded roadbed, has furnished a very important supplement to the rail- roads in marketing the fruit of the northern part of the county. During the glacial period the entire county was covered with a thick mass of ice. This ice was gradually moved southward, and carried with it

313

314 BULLETIN 226.

the stony material that now makes up the soil of the south part of the county. This material was deposited in the long hills, or drumlins, and in the sheet of stony material that occurs between them. The depth of this covering of glacial drift varies from a few feet to about one hundred and seventy-five feet. In many places between the hills the bed-rock is very close to the surface, what soil there is having been largely brought from the hills by the rains. In some places the bed-rock is still uncovered. Many of the small streams that drain the area run on this rock. In order to drain some of the lower land, the rock must be blasted out in order to deepen the streams.

The drumlin area.—About two-thirds of the county is covered with a succession of the long north and south hills or drumlins. (See page 364.)

Fic. 67—Near Sodus Bay. A sandy soil. This was formerly the old lake bed. The hills in the foreground have been caused by subsequent crosion. These hills have a slightly northwest and southeast direction. They are from one-fourth of a mile to three miles long—usually a little over a mile—and are about one-fourth as wide as long. Their tops are from 450 to 670 feet above sea level, and rise from 75 to 175 feet above the valleys. ‘These heights for such narrow hills give very steep east and west slopes. The north and south slopes occupy comparatively little of the area. The former are abrupt, the latter more gentle. The greater part of the elevated land, therefore, consists of very steep east and west slopes. The orchards are situated on these slopes and on some of the rolling land of lower levels. The soil type of the hills and the higher part of the lower land is the Miami stony loam. (See page 316.) :

The drumlin area that was once partly submerged.—In the northeast part of the county, east of Sodus Bay, there is a considerable area where

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WayNE County, New York. 315

the drumlins were once islands or were covered by the lake at the same time when the ridge was formed. (See Fig. 67.) The sediment depos- ited in the quiet water that filled these lower places formed the Miami silt loam (see page 317), which has proved to be an excellent apple soil. The higher-lying land is mostly the Miami stony loam and Alton stony loam. Areas of Miami fine sand also occur.

The gently rolling, glaciated area —Between the ridge and the drum- lins of Marion and Walworth townships the soil was mostly removed by the glaciers. In many places the rock is so near the surface as to inter- fere with the growth of apples. The soil is a good apple soil where deep enough and where there is an outlet for the water.

Area of rolling land that was once the lake bed.—North of the ridge the land was once the old lake bed. The soil is formed from sedimentary deposits in the old lake and to some extent from deposits by the glaciers. It is now a gently rolling plain with a quite variable soil. (See Fig. 144.) In many places the drainage is poor, but there are many desir- able sites for orchards. The soil types used for apples are the Alton stony loam, Miami silt loam and Miami fine sand.*

Soils.

The soil types——The chief apple soils of the county are the Miami stony loam, the Miami silt loam and the Alton stony loam. Apples are also grown on the Miami fine sand, the Ontario gravelly loam and on a

phase of the Alton stony loam that has the bed-rock too near the surface.

“For a further discussion of the topography, geology and origin of soils, see Part II of this report.

*For a more extended discussion of soils, see the report of “A Soil Survey of the Lyons Area,” a reprint from the “ Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1902.” This gives a discussion of the soils and a soil map of all the county except the west tier of townships. It is sent free to all who apply to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

This report was not published at the time the orchard survey was made, so that the soil classification was independent of the Bureau of Soils, though following the same methods. More suhdivisions were made in the orchard work, with the idea of combining, if the differences were found to be insufficient to warrant the separa- tion. The Miami stony loam, Alton stony loam and Miami fine sand were each divided into two subtypes. These divisions seem to be entirely unnecessary. One subdivision of the Alton stony loam, in which the bed-rock is so near the surface as materially to affect the production of apples, is retained as a distinct type. The Ontario gravelly loam was mapped by the Bureau of Soils with the Miami stony loam and Alton stony loam. This is kept as a distinct type. The smallness of the

316 BULLETIN 226.

The Miami stony loam is the stony soil that covers the drumlins and most of the rolling land between these hills. It is a light brown loam, eight to ten inches deep, containing five to forty per cent of stone and gravel. The stones are usually smal] and well rounded. The subsoil is a brownish-yellow, stony loam. The proportion of stone and gravel usually increases at greater depths, but the reverse is sometimes true. The gravel is sometimes cemented together so as to form a gravel hard- pan. This occasionally occurs near enough to the surface to interfere with the growth of apple-trees. Table 27 gives a summary of the average mechanical analyses of four samples of this soil.

TABLE 27.

Mechanical analyses of the fine earth of Miami stony loam. Average of four

samples, three of which were taken from the report of the Bureau of Soils.

Soil. Subsoil.

Pér cent, Per cent.

CITA ri cma it aimee: sare hirer eee come en, he ieee er ete rate 1.90 T.13 Fine gravel and coarse sand (2—0.5mm)..............4+- 6. wh Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 —0.05mm).......... 44. 46. SUE COGS XPOS TE) a ved aloe ore bene ae eee ken Gees 39. 34. Clay. .(Gv005 == G-O001 aifi ).20345 20% 745 eeeetosist capes eee Te rete

The Alton stony loam.—This type of soil occurs north of the drumlin area. The surface soil, to a depth of seven to ten inches, consists of brown sandy or silty loam. The subsoil is a yellowish-brown sandy or silty loam. The type contains ten to fifty per cent of stone, which gen- erally consists of more angular fragments than those in the Miami stony loam. It also contains more fine sand or silt than that tvpe. South of the ridge there are considerable areas of it that contain limestone frag- ments. Table 28 gives the averages of three analyses of this type.

TABLE 28.

Mechanical analyses of the fine earth of the Alton stony loam. Average of three analyses made by the Bureau of Soils.

Soil. Subsoil.

Per cent. Per cent.

Py fechach in at:hqs | garner manner | ees ea Rarer mers pete nn Wg oc FPA 3.80 61 Fine gravel and coarse sand (2—0.5mm).............00005 5. 4. Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 —0.05mm).......... 52. 46. SLE Coss =, OOS THI Vives textiae souk est ktakiene veh ate are 30. Bile Clay (0.0005 == 00007: Tit). 4.2. \-<a5 ss ova tee leis ahiieas Cea 19.

individual areas would make it difficult, if not impossible, to map it separately by the Bureau of Soils method. The Miami silt loam (called the Elmira silt loam in the Bureau of Soils report, but since changed to Miami silt loam) corresponds exactly with one of the classifications made by the writer. In general the soil types and the mechanical analyses agree remarkably well for results secured from inde- pendent work.

———————

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 317

South of the ridge, in the west part of the county, there are considerable areas of the Alton stony loam, where the soil rests on limestone rock that is so near the surface as to interfere with the growth of apples. The soil is too shallow to admit of good root-growth or to allow good drainage.

The Miami silt loam.—This is a brown or yellowish-brown silt loam, eight or ten inches deep, underlaid by brownish-yellow or yellow silty loam. This type occurs on the rolling land near the lake and around

Sodus Bay. (See table 29.)

TABLE 20.

Mechanical analyses of Miami silt loam. Average of four samples, three of which were analysed by the Bureau of Soils.

Soil. Subsoil,

Percent. Percent,

ORC epg £001 | ae a 1.44 32 Fine gravel and coarse sand (2—0.5 mm). ae ee ie : Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 —o. Os mm). reg ee 18. Sim COMO St OR OOS Tien que pie ere gre ees teeta ® = Serer analy 64. 66. en O05 -—OGOOL MIN) igissecsecs-<taeecsicebeseceekae TBs 14.

Miami fine sand.—This type is a light brown sandy loam, eight or ten inches deep, underlain by light yellow sand, usually free from stones. Its chief occurence is north of the ridge. (See table 30.)

TABLE 30. Mechanical. analyses of the Miami fine sand. Average of three analyses made by the Bureau of Soils.

Soil. Subsoil.

Per cent. Per cent.

OrocniCanianet meree es emartnte ct eee Bee ee ois 0.38 Fine gravel and coarse sand (2—9.5 mm). ee er 4. 3 Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 —o. os mm).........- 78. 85. Silt (08 0. GOE Mitt) ion 6 eos bee bes vs gave nee enaa ces T4. Q. Glay, (0.005 — 0.0001 MIM) i..es--..26-.-.-- 3. ap

Ontario gravelly loam.—This is a brown gravel underlain by a hght brown gravel or gravelly loam. The predominating characteristic is the gravel. Most of the gravel is less than one inch in diameter. It occurs in small deposits in the Miami stony loam and is the common type along the ridge. It is a very open soil—too well drained. Along the ridge it is nearly all planted to apples. The deposits of gravel that occur in the drumlins are frequently used on the public roads. (See Fig. 69.)

Average yield on the different soil types —VTable 31 shows the average yields on the six different types of soil. The number of orchards on the last three types is not large enough to give positive results. The table

318 BULLETIN 226.

shows definitely that the Miami stony loam averages better than the Alton stony loam and that the soil with the bed-rock near the surface is by far the poorest of all. | believe that the four-year average shows the rela- tive merits of the soils quite accurately, except that the average for the Ontario gravelly loam seems to be a little too high. It is certain, how- ever, that this type usually gives a good yield. All previous discussions of apple soils, so far as | have been able to determine, would consider this a very poor apple soil.

TABLE 21.

Average yield in bushels on different soil types. Trees set before t88o.

1goo. TOOL. SOIL TYPE. —. <= = : No. = Average | No, Average orchards. ATES, yield. lorchards.| “eres yield. Miami stony ‘loam ............ | 116 | 542% 287 159 8344 57 Alton stony loam............. 24 182 255 20 144% 33 Alton stony loam (bed rock | MGA SUPA) wat dhoduie idee 8 35 218 5 26 Of Miami silt loam.............. 4 125 379 6 115 99 Ontario gravelly loam’........ 2 17 A474 aN eae 73 Miami fine sandy loam........ 5 41 100 6 GT 93 TABLE 31—Concluded. 1902. | 1903. : Four- SOIL “TYPE; — = = ae year No. ae Average No. ere Average poveee orchards seres. yield. | orchards pee yield. Miami stony loam...... 272 | 14193 | 234 | 132 78834 283 215 Alton stony loam........ 3 358 215 1¢ 185 22 183 y 43 | 35 5 | 9 5

s h : F 0: 9 7

Miami fine sandy loam .. 8 63 353 Fl wae 220 192

Summary of the soil factor in apple-productionn—While the kind of soil is important, in this locality, it is evidently not the most important factor in apple-production and is not as important as the kind of treatment that the soil receives. The kind of care required varies with the soil. The Miami silt loam will doubtless produce a good crop with less manure

ee

AN APPLE ORCHARD SuRVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 319

.than is required on any of the other types. The Miami stony loam is next strongest. The other types require larger applications of manure, but give good results when so treated. These latter are more open and are more in need of humus. The soil with the bed-rock near the surface is entirely unsuited to apples. For the best production of apples, there should be at least six feet of well-drained soil in every part of the orchard.

Drainage.

The condition of the natural drainage.—In selecting a soil for an orchard, more important than chemical or physical composition is the

Fic. 68.—IJn the center of a 35-acre orchard that is on a hill. Several acres have been gradually killed and many more damaged by ground water. This land has grown up to weeds and gives no income. IT! could easily be drained.

question of drainage. No well-drained soils were found in the county that were not producing good crops of apples when properly cared for. The majority of the orchards are on fairly well drained land. A large number would be benefited by underdrainage, but in some cases the bene- fit would not be great enough to pay. Some orchards have been set on such wet land that they have entirely failed; others have one corner extending down into a low place where drainage is’ needed; others are divided by small “draws” that need underdrains. Where the orchards are on steep hillsides it might seem as if underdrainage would be unnecessary, but there are many places where the seepage water calls for drains. In other places the long slopes accumulate such a large volume

320 BULLETIN 226.

of surface water that drains are needed. Fig. 68 shows a 35-acre orchard, in the center of which are several acres that have been drowned out. This orchard is on a high hill and has a fair slope, but it needs drainage. There is usually a strip of poorly drained land on each side of the “ ridge”. Kettle-holes occur occasionally in the north part of the county. Ina few orchards near the lake shore there are successions of parallel waves of land, making a few rods of good soil followed by some that needs drainage. In the northeast part of the county several orchards were examined the foliage of which was of a red- dish hue when viewed from a_ distance. Some of the leaves were quite red in the latter part of August. This seemed to be due to the lack of drainage. It was characteristic of foli-— age in undrained places. Several farm- ers attributed this to a ‘new insect” that had “stune ‘the

leaves ”’.

The Ontario grav- elly loam and_ the

Fre. 690.—An excavation showing stratified Ontario gravelly loam. Too well drained!

Miami fine sand drain too easily — that is, they do not retain enough water. On such soils tillage is particularly profitable. A cover-crop or barnyard manure is a necessity. They add humus and increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Tillage and humus will make any of these soils good for apples. (See Fig. 69.) Losses caused by lack of drainage—Of the 1,773™% acres of orchard land in Walworth, only 182 acres have any kind of underdrainage. Most of these have only a stone drain or two in a particularly wet place. A

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 321 few have tile drains. Fifty-four orchards, aggregating 232 acres, are reported as in need of drainage. ‘This means that, in the opinion of the inspector, some tile drainage would pay. The average yield of these 54

Fic. 70.—A _ twelve-acre orchard, two acres of which are dead, and two acres damaged by lack of drainage.

Fic. 71.—The trees are all damaged by insufficient drainage. The grower continues to plant young trees and these are continually drowned out. It would pay better to “plant” tile drains.

332 BULLETIN 2206.

orchards in 1902 was 203 bushels, 42 bushels below the average of the other orchards in this town. Of the 1,987'4 acres inspected in the remainder of the county, 317 acres have some underdrains, but 831 acres need drainage in whole or in part.

Perhaps five to eight per cent of the orchards of the county need under- drainage throughout. About thirty per cent need drainage in part. The great loss through neglect of drainage is not in the destruction or damage

hig. 72—A “draw” in a tyo-acre orchard where the trees are being gradually drowned oul. The tree in the foreground is dying but is bearing a large crop of litile apples and few leaves. The owner considers it a phenomenal tree, but it will probably not bear many more crops.

of the few entire orchards, but in the loss from the few small wet places in hundreds of orchards; for there are hundreds of orchards that have from one to fifteen per cent of the trees drowned out or badly damaged. There is a low place, a “ draw ” (see Fig. 72), or a kettle-hole, or a place where the water seeps out, and a few trees are killed or damaged. These vacant places are in most cases waste land. If they were occupied by

trees it would not add materially to the expense of caring for the orchard,

——

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw York. 323

but would add very substantially to the income. T[igs. 68, 70 and 71

show such areas of waste land, due to lack of drainage. Many of the

trees that are not killed are badly damaged. In such places a few tile

or a good stone drain would pay many times over. A manufacturer

would not long allow any such loss. Why should a farmer give less attention to losses in his business?

Lack of drainage may not be apparent while the trees are young. It is a grow- ing evil, for as the trees get-larger and the roots extend deeper, they get into poorly drained and poorly aerated soil.

Fic. 73.—lIn the same orchard as Fig. 68, showing the border line between the dead and dying trees. The trees are 45 years old. Their size can be seen by com- paring with the small boy. The gnarly horizontal spread of the limbs is characteristic of trees that are in the most poorly drained places.

Fic. 74.—This orchard is ordinarily fairly well drained but in the wet seasons it suffers. The picture was taken Oct. 10, 1904. At this date the leaves had all fallen, because of the wet soil. The leaves had been falling badly for two months.

324 BULLETIN 22

The trees may do very well till they are about old enough to bear, then some wet season they will be damaged or even killed.

Those who propose to set new orchards should consider the question well before starting such an expensive and long-continued enterprise on soil that is not well drained naturally or artificially. It is not enough that the soil will raise an ordinary farm crop. The roots of such a crop do not go as deep as do apple-roots. l'urthermore, if a corn crop is lost or damaged by water, it does not prevent raising a good crop next year. When an apple orchard is damaged one can not start over the next spring as if nothing had happened. The corn is an annual, a one-year invest- ment; the apple, a perennial, a long-time investment.

CHAPTER X. ELEVATIONS AND EXPOSURES.

Sites—The sites are classified as elevated, or well up on the hills; moderately elevated; slightly elevated, and low. Table 32 shows the

areas of each division. TABLE 32.

| WaLwortTu. | REMAINDER OF Co. Entire County.

oe? ee sl) es ees (eee

| No. z No. or- ee No.

| orchards. ae chards, an orchards, | cl

| | / LEUNG 2 StI gra neon oe | 1§8 | 790% 34 | 359 192 1149'% Moderately and slightly elevated. 133 495% ot 1488 22 1983 '2 LAO “ae en en | 147 487 4 Io | 140% 157 627%

Relation of the sites to yields—The yields do not indicate any par- ticular advantage for any of the divisions. The four-year average in Walworth on elevated sites was 227 bushels; moderately and _ slightly elevated, 224 bushels; low, 213 bushels. for the remainder of the county

Fic. 75.—An orchard on the east side of a drumlin.

the differences are about the same but are in the reverse order. [Evidently the site is not a very important factor. The best site is doubtless one that is sufficiently elevated to give good opportunity for air and water-

drainage, but not so high as to be sharply exposed to wind.

The aspects or exposure.—Vhe majority of the orchards in the drumlin area are on east or west slopes occupying the sides of the drumlins (see Fig. 75 and page 304). There are, however, many orchards on the rolling

land of lower levels, and in the north part of the county, where there are

325

326 BULLETIN 226.

no drumlins, the land is rolling. Table 33 shows the predominance of east and west slopes in Walworth.

TABLE 33. Aspect. WALWORTH. Exposure. : “No. orchards, Acres, INSee keratitis aetena'e es Gea raya Peed wala Shep teat os Ree ee Reems 25 80 IN Pe ce eee eee rans Wr Wes eats eae ik eileen & cori avatars criti fe ele aeeeeree Py 88 | NA A a ee ery ee ee Pe gree ee are Pe ee ere eee 84 31314 SS LG AR ari cote aa eth CARTE ete tetas cect dee nT ee 19 74 Seen See SORE Rie Ce Ole ta ee 26 91% BV st oe i ee eee eee ae eee ec 20 74 Le one ees reer tare rye ere he ery em oe tien ae 71 268 Bat rVicdse se tessa acto ek ee Wea aie WUE A hey ate e Feo ee ny ees Is 61 TES See ea te Aontavaecig Bee Gotta ela and eetis cee tla acer veh Pola rides Severe ee are 45 129%

IRGUMIST ae MER ae ove otetel rao meee are ea ae tae ee eon toes 106 503

*\Most of those classed as rolling are a combination of east and west slopes. The south part of the county has equally marked east and west slopes. The north part is rolling.

The etfect of aspect on yields—The easterly slopes in Walworth gave a larger yield each of the past four years than have the westerly slopes. The difference in 1902 was 23 bushels per acre in favor of the easterly slopes. In each of the other years the difference was greater. The north part of the county does not show this marked uniform differ- ence. The differences are greater than one would expect. In each of the four years the northeast slopes have exceeded the northwest, the east have exceeded the west; the only exceptions are that in two cases the south- east have failed to exceed the southwest. The four-year average in Walworth was 43 bushels in favor of easterly slopes.

It seems safe to conclude that the easterly slopes have marked advan- tages over the westerly. This is due to the protection from the strong west winds which do considerable damage at times. In the first part of June, 1903, the leaves of the west rows in many orchards were badly injured by winds. In many cases the foliage looked brown from the distance. The outer part of most leaves was damaged and many entire leaves were killed. The effects were still apparent in July... These strong west winds also cause more loss from windfalls on the west sides of the hills. The orchards on the level exposures give the least yields of all, a difference that is probably due to poorer drainage.

CHAPTER XL

A COMPARISON OF RENTED ORCHARDS WITH THOSE MANAGED BY THE

OwNEeER.

Census of rented orchards.—Between twenty and twenty-five per cent of the area devoted to apples is rented. (See table 34.) The usual method of renting an orchard is the share system. The renter takes entire charge of the orchard and delivers a certain share of the crop—usually half—to the owner. A cash rental is not uncommon, but 1s given in a much smaller number of cases. Many of the renters do not remain on one farm longer than one or two years.

TABLE 34. Area of rented orchards and of those not rented. Trees sect before 1S8o.

WALWORTH, | REMAINDER OF CounTy. ENTIRE County. PROPRIETOR, | =i , are ‘ice wes Doan — _ No. or- ies Per (No, or- aries Per (No. or- er | chards., BEFES, cent. | chards. Acres. cent. | chards | Acres cent | | ao _— | on Ne C2 Owner® 27.665 2: 243 | 1.08034 SI | 85 I, 451 75 328 | 2, 53134} 77 Renter ......... 64 259% 19 37. | 487%| 25 IOI 747 | 28

Effects of the rental system on the health of the orchard.—Vhe large number of rented orchards gives rise to a serious problem in orchard management. When aman rents land for the growth of field crops, there is not only a definite basis for the rent but there is also an unwritten law that has established quite definitely how he should raise these crops. There are no such definite customs that determine the care which a rented apple orchard should receive.

The greatest obstacle in the way of good care is the fact that the returns for good treatment do not come immediately. Good care of field-crops gives an immediate effect; good care of an apple orchard may give less returns the first year than it gives several years later. A renter does not like to plow up a pasture that is of immediate value for the benefit of a future apple-crop. If he mows the grass, he is not likely to leave it for a mulch, unless it is not good for hay. The farm manure will bring him quicker returns if used on the field-crops. The greatest return which

327

328 BULLETIN 226.

he gets from pruning may be.in the fire-wood procured, and some of the pruning is therefore done so as to get the most wood with the least work. If he has no crop, he does not see the profit in spraying for the benefit of a future crop that he may not reap.

All these points are emphasized when the renter is certain that he will not stay another year. Their effect on the tree is partially indicated by the average yields. This average for the past four vears has been 174 | bushels for the rented orchards and 210 bushels for those not rented. (See table 35.)

)

TABLE 35.

Yields of rented orchards compared with those not rented. Trees set before 1880,

{

WALWORTH. REMAINDER OF County. | Entire County. a= a a —s _— ee _— i “ 4 4 PROPRIETOR, mn Aver- wy | Aver- | Aver- | No. OF-| Acres, age ate OT" Acres. | age nike ie Acres.| age chards. yield. chards yield. | chards, | yield 1900 Owner ..s6.ccis-eee+s| O84 | 3874) 932 | 54 247 | 125 | 9294! 283 RENE oc 41e) a thok eee | Wee 7514| 305 | 5 | 242%| 232 28 | 31 249 | 1gol | | | | | | | KI OTEN 5.9 (GR ds ears ...| 118 | 60734 64 |) 32 | ‘S67 40 150 117434 57 | POMHEOE acs Co 0k ac male! 20 | 113 30 | 23) 367%, 47| 43 | 480%| 45 | | | | 1902 | ; _ ¢ WOE si eeiia ea ee 196 93554 262 61 |1004%| 217 257. |19404 39 Renter, defn eee ee) 45 | 208%, 1096 28 | 3905%| 183 73 | 604 187 . | | 1903 | | | | (WHEL 4.2 srt hes 09 | 5803%4| 280 | 33 | 57572| 239 132 |1156%4| 260 Renter.... 12 | 70 | 222 | 9 | 178%! 215 | 21 | 248%| 216 | Four-year average: Manated bY OWED sien e du aevenne men Daur eeee ee 210 bushels | Manaeed by rantersies.dsiiiius band ets boom eeeetaeei” TFA a

The attitude of the renter is, on the whole, about as good as that of _ the owner of a rented farm. Owners are usually very slow to spend money on improvements, or in keeping up a place. Both men often — squeeze the farm for the last penny and let the future look out for itself.

In a very few cases the difficulty has been overcome by a contract with the renter, that he is to give the orchard certain definite care. One such contract calls for at least two sprayings and two cultivations.

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEw YorK. 329

Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm.—\Many renters would be glad to improve the orchard, but the pruning and renovation of a neglected orchard is an expensive undertaking. One cannot afford to do this unless he has a lease for several years, or unless the owner helps to pay the cost. The owner does not like to spend money for such work, for he feels that he will likely have a poor tenant about the time that the orchard gets in good shape. Some have taken the broader view and have spent money in the renovation of the orchard. These have almost invariably been well repaid by the increased income. An owner who takes a pride in keeping up his place and who is willing to spend money, if necessary, in improving it, stimulates the renter by his own interest. Such aman also attracts the better class of renters. He may occasionally have a very poor one, but the average is certainly much above that found on the farm where the owner begrudges new shingles on the barn. The renter sometimes takes so much pride in his work that he will take good care of an orchard even if he does not expect an immediate return. This is also a good investment for such a man becomes known and can therefore secure a farm more readily and sometimes on better terms.

Unquestionably the most effective way to bring the rented orchards up to the average is to give leases for a longer time. The commonest reason for not doing this is the fear that a shiftless tenant will secure the place and retain it. There is abundant reason for this fear, but if the renter changes every year or two, the chances of a bad one at some time are multiplied. Such a man may do more damage in one year than can be overcome in many years. <A fairly good man, or even one that is below the average, if kept from year to year will give better results than a rapid succession of good and bad tenants.

As one travels through orchard after orchard, he becomes more and more impressed with the desirability of maintaining the American ideal of every farm owned by the man who works it. But if the owner secures the best renter possible, gives him a lease of several years, requires good care of the orchard, and then is willing to bear part of the expense of renovating the orchard where this is necessary, the renter ceases to be a menace to the apple industry.

CHAPTER XII. VARIETIES.

The varieties grown.—Nearly all the bearing orchards are made up of a mixture of Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening, with a few trees of other: kinds. There are more Baldwins than of all other varieties com- bined. Probably eighty to ninety per cent of all the trees are either Baldwin or Greening. The larger part of the balance are Tompkins King, Northern Spy, Twenty Ounce and Roxbury Russet. There are some trees of many other varieties but the numbers are so small as to be unimportant in comparison with the above kinds. Some of these less important varieties are: Hubbardston, Ben Davis, Esopus Spitzenburg, Wagener, Duchess of Oldenburg, Red Astrachan.

The young orchards also differ much in varieties, but the larger part are planted to Baldwin, Ben Davis, Greening, Hubbardston. Other varieties that are being planted to a very limited extent are: Duchess of Oldenburg, Wealthy, Wolf River, Mann, Grimes Golden, Rome Beauty, Maiden Blush, Red Astrachan, Northern Spy, Russets, Snow, Yellow Bellflower, Boiken, McIntosh Red, Gravenstein, Sutton Beauty, Bis- mark, ete.

Variations within the variety.—* We know that no two trees in any orchard are alike, either in the amount of fruit which they bear or in their vigor and habit of growth. Some are uniformly productive and some are uniformly unproductive. \We know, too, that scions or buds tend to reproduce the characters of the tree from which they are taken. A gardener would never think of taking cuttings from a rose-bush, or chrysanthemum, or a carnation which does not bear flowers. Why should a fruit-grower take scions from a tree which he knows to be unprofitable ?

“The indiscriminate cutting of scions is too clumsy and inexact a prac- tice for these days, when we are trying to introduce scientific methods into our farming.’”*

Long ago men learned that two cows were not necessarily alike because they were both Jerseys. The man who would raise cattle from any indi- vidual merely because it belonged to the desired breed would be ridiculed. But there are as great differences between Baldwin apple-trees as there are between Jersey cows.

*L. H. Bailey, Cornell Bulletin 102, Oct., 1895. 330

AN APPLE ORCHARD SuRVEY OF WAYNE County, NEW York. 331

‘ Bae

Fic. 76.—The old “ mother tree” from which all of Mr. Smith’s trees were grafted. It bears excellent apples and good crops of them. About 500 trees have been grafted from this tree.

Fic. 77.—Trees in Mr. Smith’s young orchard. Top-worked with scions from the “mother tree.”

33 BULLETIN 220.

When the farmer has top-grafted his trees, as is sometimes done for other reasons, there has probably been more or less unconscious selection from good trees. Few nurserymen have yet paid any attention to the matter, nor are they likely to do so till fruit-growers are willing to pay for the increased work.*

One good example of care in the selection of scions was seen in Orleans county. I[ifty-three years ago Mr. Russell Smith of Albion grafted one tree to Baldwin. This proved to be so exceptionally productive that he grafted some of the other trees in the same orchard with scions from it. A few years later another orchard of three acres was planted. A large part of these trees were top-worked to Baldwin with scions from the original tree. In 1868 his sons, S. W. and William Smith, decided to plant ten acres more. They bought good Northern Spy trees for stocks and top-worked them to Baldwin. Most farmers would have taken the scions from the young orchard because longer and better-looking shoots could have been obtained, but they were not satisfied to do this. They went to the original * mother tree’ for all the scions. This mother tree is still living and producing apples. “It is literally bearing itself to death.” (See Fig. 76.) The orchards grafted from it are all producing large crops. (See Fig. 77.) Of course there are plenty of good trees in New York that were budded or grafted with scions taken from young trees or that were taken indiscriminately from old trees, just as there are good cattle that were produced without any care in breeding. Some good ones will certainly be secured by accident, but the scientific fruit-grower climinates all accidents so far as possible. He increases his chances for success when he secures good nursery-grown stock and top-works it from

trees of bearing age—trees of known productiveness, vigor and quality.

*J. WH. Teats & Sons, of Williamson, are growing * pedigreed” peach trees. They have several good orchards, but have only a few trees that they consider good enough to bud from. Such a tree must be hardy, it must bear the best peaches and plenty of them. They find that the public is willing to pay more for these trees than for trees where no selection has been practiced.

CHAPIPER: XE: ENEMIES OF THE APPLE.

The more serious enemies.——The codlin-moth and the scab fungus are the most serious enemies of the apple in Western New York. The scab is not so injurious if the apples are to be evaporated, but it probably causes more loss than any other enemy when apples are to be barreled. It was very destructive in 1902, was of small importance in 1903, and was very prevalent in 1904.

Of the insects that attack the tree, the canker-worm (commonly called “army worm”’) has done the most damage, but it is now practically sub- dued. Probably the wood-rot fungi have done more to shorten the lives of the trees than any other enemy. These gain entrance through wounds and rot out the trunk so that the trees eventually break down. (See pruning, Chap. IV.) Canker of the limbs has done much damage and has killed a number of entire orchards. (See page 341.) The collar rot, “ King disease,’ or “ winter injury,’ as it is variously designated, is the worst enemy of King and Spitzenburg varieties. It is not so serious with other varieties. (See page 345.)

In addition to these there are many kinds of insects and diseases that do a small amount of damage every year. In their ups-and-downs some- times one and sometimes another becomes serious. The bud-moth prob- ably did as much damage as any other insect in 1903. Aphids were the worst enemy of young trees and caused considerable damage in old orchards. They were worse on thrifty trees than on slow-growing ones. The best orchardists therefore suffered the most loss from them. The apple bucculatrix, or ribbed cocoon-maker of the apple, the apple weevil and the mites each did considerable damage in a few orchards. Table 36 indicates something of the relative importance of the various enemies in 1903.

TABLE 36.

Insect and fungous enemies of the apple in 1903.

Injury. No, orchards. No. acres.

Canker (Sphaeropsis malorum)....................SeTious 87 526%

considerable 83 720%

Bud-moth (Tmetocera ocellana)...................serious 45 59034 considerable 37 221,

; slight 148 614%

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella)...............8erious 61 33314 considerable 45 631

slight all bearing orchards 333

334 BULLETIN 226. TABLE 36—Concluded. , Injury. No. orchards. No, acres. Collar t6t & assess Re ee ee oak cada eee considerable 31 212 slight nearly all old orchards Aphis (Aphis pomi)........ . os. -SCrious 55 458 considerable 44 3244 slight all orchards Scab (Menturta inaequalis)......... sas es eS@LlOUs 66 424% considerable 68 440 slight all bearing orchards Apple-weevil (4nthonomus quadrigibbus)..........8erious 13 8714 considerable it 79% slight 28 182 Apple bucculatrix (Bucculatrix pomifoliella)........serious 7 73 considerable ) 1501%4 slight all old orchards Canker on leaves (Sphacropsis malorum)...........serious 4 O04 considerable 3 67 slight I 4 Leaf-blister mites......... ah eee Serious 4 251% considerable 6 4 shght 56 37244 Léat spot CPAyilosiicta Sp.) io 244.2542 otcotsan see Senous 5 44 considerable 9 383% sight nearly all orchards Leaf sewer (Phoxopteris nebeculana)..............8erlous 4 43 considerable 7 104 slight 33 719 Canker-worm (Paleacrita vernata).................S@Fio0us 3 21 considerable 3 124 slight 3 272 Tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa americana)...........serious 1 10 considerable 2 614 slight 36 146% Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera)...............8erious 2 6 considerable A 22 slight nearly all orchards Fall web worm (Hyphantria cunea)................serious (e) fe) considerable 2 3% slight 27 479% San José scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus)............serious O fe) considerable I 4 slight I 2

This table includes all the enemies that were found to be serious in any orchard, except borers and the wood-rot fungi. Many other insects and fungi were seen but were not doing any considerable harm.

Common notions regarding orchard enenties.—It is interesting to note the enemies that have impressed themselves on the minds of the orchard- ists. In answer to the question as to what insects or diseases had damaged the orchard in the past, the canker-worm was mentioned for 173 orchards,

No

Among those men-

scab for 120, tent-caterpillars for 112; codlin-moth came fourth. other enemy was mentioned more than five times. tioned were canker, borers, San José scale, pink rot, case-bearers, collar rot, leaf-roller, oyster-shell bark louse, aphids, handmaid moth, curculio, palmer-worm. Losses due to mice, sun scald and russeting of the fruit

were also mentioned,

AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, New York. 335

THE APPLE-ScAB FuNGuS (Venturia inaequalis).

Importance of this disease-——The worst disease with which the apple- grower has to contend is the apple-scab, commonly called “ the fungus.” More questions are asked about it than about any other enemy of the apple, and there is great difference of opinion among farmers as to what it is and what to do about it. True, spraying has become an accepted practice and the best fruit-growers practically eliminate the scab, but the majority of farmers do not do so. The varying opinions are due to the fact that the fungus is invisible or

oe

inconspicuous until it“ goes to seed.” A knowledge of its life history

is essential to any intelligent treatment of it. It has been frequently described, but the information is not yet sufficiently disseminated. I shall, therefore, attempt to answer some of the common questions that are asked about it. A few ques- tions are asked over and over again, “What is the fungus?” “ What causes it?” “ Why is it worse in wet seasons?” “ Why are some varieties more affected than others?”

What is the scab fungus?—'This

apple-scab is no new pest. It has no doubt been seriously present py, og ena aeheesienelunaeh ee ever since apples were grown in by the scab fungus. the country, causing many fail- ures of crops which were laid to the weather or the moon.’”*

This fungus is a very small plant that grows as a parasite on the

the apple is its soil. We might say that it

leaves and on the apple, is a weed that grows on the apple and allied fruits rather than on the ground. It lives over winter on the fallen leaves and perhaps to a very limited extent on the branches. “ Scab makes its first appearance early in the spring, usually soon after the leaves begin to unfold, and it is

while these and the fruit are in a young condition that the fungus can best infect them.”+ (See Fig. 78.) The seed (spore) falls on the

*L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84, Jan., 1895. +George P. Clinton, Bul. 67, Univ. of Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dec., rgor.

330 BULLETIN 220.

young apple or on the leaf and there grows, sending its roots

(mycelium) into the tissues of the apple. At first the infected spot —

is invisible, later

it causes the skin

to take on a deep

but it is sel-

still later in the

olive-ere en color,

dom noticed until season when i breaks through the skin and causes the black

scab. Fig. 70 shows an

apple that has just reached

this stage. ‘The outer skin of

breaking away lic. 79.—The ouler skin (cuticle) ruptured. lack fungus,

; exposing the fungus. . which has now 20 Gee to

seed.’ In time the spores are blown and washed away and some of the

the apple is

exposing the

fungus cells and dead tissue are more or less worn away so that the color

may become a_ reddish-brown,

due to the exposed dead corky tissue. ‘The scab spots on the left in Tig. 8o show the spores and fungus cells beginning to leave from the center of the spot. The large scab on the right shows the rusty scar that is left after the-disease tissue has scaled off. Farmers describe this change by saving that ** the

fungus leaves the apple,” or

“the fungus changes to rust.”

a . as If this takes place before the lic. 80.—The diseased tissue scaling off: from

tha. wt ote. apple 1s picked, the appearance

AN APPLE ORCHARD SuRVEY oF WayNrE County, New York. 337

and keeping quality are not so seriously affected as when picked in the stage shown in Fig. 79, but the fungus may make some further growth around the edge of the scar if put in warm storage.

Fig. 81 shows a Baldwin apple so badly attacked that it has become distorted and cracked. Most cases of cracking of the apple are due to this fungus.

Fig. 82 shows three sections of apple-leaves. “In Fig. 1 the leaf is healthy. Observe the regularity of the three upper layers of cells. In Tig. 2, the brown fungus may be seen growing on the upper surface, and at this stage.it has destroyed the upper or epidermal cells, although it is probable that the mycelium of the fungus first spreads just under the cuticle, on top of the layer of epidermal cells. Fig. 3 shows the fungus when it is better estab- lished, and it will be seen that all the cells of the leaf are disarranged, the

chlorophyll or green

grains being few in

Fic. 81.—Baldwin apple showing cracking due to the ; fungus.

number, and the leaf has increased in thickness. This, Fig. 3, is a cross-section through one of the blister-like elevations which are shown on the leaf in Fig. 83. It will be seen that the fungus does not enter the deeper tissues of the leaf, although it disorganizes them by its parasitic effects. In Fig. 3, a spore can be seen at A, and two are shown broken off their stem or hyphae at B. In Fig. 2 the spores can be seen in process of formation at the ends of the threads, and at C one of the threads is cut off.”

Relation of the weather to the scab fungus.—Nearly all fungi are fav- ored by wet weather; wheat rust, bean rust, potato blight, etc., are all

worse in wet seasons. The wet weather does not create any fungus

*L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84, Jan., r8905

338 BULLETIN 226.

any more than favorable weather creates a corn crop. <A fungus can- not develop unless the spores get on the host plant any more than a corn crop can be grown without planting the seed. But there are usually plenty of spores on hand so that all they need is weather favorable to their growth. Unusually wet weather during the blossoming period favors the growth of the scab fungus. lor the same reason it does more damage in shady, unpruned and undrained orchards. Dense tops prevent the evaporation of the moisture. Open tops allow the air to circulate freely, and they therefore quickly dry out after a rain or dew.

Some varieties are more affected than others.—The Snow, Spitzenburg and Maiden Blush are particularly sub- ject to scab. The Greening and Twenty

deat ; Ounce are more af- i

3

aM log Ga fod HA e Ritskianie te fected than the Bald- + MSY) ASR 4 Heel paid Wiige 2s 464 ote a3" . ~ Sas y ED RHA win. Golden Russet ey Wie SO OG, pa SUR Ad Ay Ee oy ot | fC Jae 1. OP Ae Dd ( and Hubbardston are ve ig, te Sig - (Pe he-3 ar oe Sag ete ay Voy 8 36, ay om ] , y OF Spr) NSE Ae OD among the more “ exe Dir y 65 Fp - at roe | A SAY ict are EO Dy Be resistant varieties. SA SS A ha ©) ALS The difference is Yee Sete | Samet GY Lee) eI Sk 3 probably due to the : i

_ more tender outer Itc. 82.—Cross-sections of apple leaves. 1. Healthy leaf. skins of some vari- 2. The upper surface attacked by the scab fungus. 3.

' eties. The fungus A later stage in the growth of the fungus. >

must penetrate the

outer skin before it can do any damage. It is interesting to note that while the Greening apples are much more affected than the Baldwin, vet the Baldwin foliage is very much more affected than that of the Greening. Relation to other fungii—The scab fungus is often confused with other fungi that secure a foothold in the wounds caused by the scab. Part of this confusion is doubtless due to the fact that the scab is almost always called “the fungus.” It would be well if farmers would call it the apple-scab, in order to distinguish it from the hundreds of other fungi. The scab fungus causes the dark spots on the apple that may later change to rusty spots. It is never white. The white moulds that sometimes grow on these same spots are other fungi that could not have

An AppLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF WAYNE County, NEW York. — 339

hurt the apple had the skin not been broken by the scab or by some injury, One of these, the pink rot, caused much damage in 1902.”

Treatment.—A_ sufficient number of thorough sprayings with the Bordeaux mixture will keep the apples prac- tically free from scab. The essential points are thoroughness and prompt- ness. Spraying after the scab becomes established does little or no good. Some men have been surprised to see the scab develop under spots where the spray was still visible. This simply

means that the spraying was too late—

the fungus was already in the apple.

Since the spores do not all germinate — Fy6, 84.—Leaf spots probably caused

: f ror Pl at once, we should not